fcERKElEY^N 

LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF      I 
CALIfORNIA      J 


SOME  TOPICS 


IN 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

For  the  PUPIL, 

The  TEACHER,  and 

The  GENERAL  READER, 


EDITED   BY 

ARTHUR  HINDS, 

LATELY  TEACHER  OF  GRAMMAR  IN  THE  WESTFIELD,   MASS.,    STATE 
NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


NEW  YORK : 

BAKER  &   GODWIN,   PRINTERS, 

No.  25  Park  Row. 

1881. 


Copyright,  1881, 
By  Arthur  Hinds. 


890 
HUZ 

PREFACE.        som. 


About  twenty  years  ago  the  instructor  in  grammar 
in  the  Westfield,  Mass.,  State  Normal  School  attempted 
to  teach  a  class  of  teacher-pupils  the  principles  of 
English  grammar  as  inculcated  in  u  the  text-books." 
The  attempt  was  not  successful  and  was  never  re- 
newed. The  least  to  be  said  is  that  "  the  text-books  ,r 
are  unsatisfactory  to  intelligent  pupils. 

The  teacher  mentioned  found  himself  driven  by 
necessity  to  devise  a  system  and  to  construct  defini- 
tions acceptable  to  a  class  of  conscientious  pupils  of 
ordinary  intelligence.  The  statements  of  principles 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  topics  herein  presented  are 
in  their  essential  features  the  product  of  his  endeavor, 
and  issue  from  the  test  of  twenty  years  of  discussion 
by  the  members  of  the  Westfield  Normal  School. 

Teachers  are  almost  unanimous  in  condemning  the 
grammars  as  untruthful,  or  inconsistent,  or  complicat- 
ed, or  as  combining  these  faults.  Many  English  gram- 
mars are  untruthful,  because  they  ascribe  to  the  En- 
glish language  characteristics  belonging  to  the  Latin, 
and  the  Greek,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,  but  which  our 
language  either  has  never  possessed  or  has  cast  off. 
The  inconsistency  of  some  grammars  is  owing  in  part 
to  this  untruthfulness  and  in  part  to  the  great  diffi- 
culty of  framing  definitions  capable  of  surviving  the 

[3] 


070 


4  PREFACE. 

test  of  application.  The  division  of  words  into  classes 
should  be  made  upon  some  uniform  and  trustworthy 
basis.  But  grammarians  have  failed  to  perceive  this, 
and  hence  inconsistency  has  been  inevitable. 

Some  grammars  are  complicated  because  they  in- 
termix "  language  lessons "  with  grammar.  Gram- 
mar, like  zoology,  and  geology,  and  chemistry,  is,  as 
a  science,  but  a  record  in  a  convenient,  classified 
form,  of  facts.  A  knowledge  of  grammar  does  not 
insure  correct  speech.  Many  a  child  uses  correct 
language  who  has  never  studied  grammar,  or,  perhaps, 
has  never  even  heard  of  it;  many  a  teacher  is  faulty 
in  speech  who  is  thoroughly  versed  in  grammar.  To 
teach  correct  habits  of  speech  would  seem,  then,  to 
be  not  the  province  of  grammar;  it  is  the  province  of 
"language  lessons."  And  "language  lessons  "  should 
form  a  part  of  all  the  child's  training,  both  at  school 
and  at  home. 

The  following  are  the  distinctive  features  of  this 
work: 

The  presentation  of  the  subject  is  natural.  Every 
principle  is  illustrated  before  it  is  stated.  The  student 
is  thus  led,  first,  to  recognize  the  principle,  and  after- 
wards, to  give  it  formal  expression.  As  a  result  his 
attention  is  directed  beyond  the  text-book  and  its 
formal  statements,  and  is  fixed  upon  the  English  lan- 
guage and  its  principles.  He  is  lead  to  think.  The 
book  only  guides. 

Traditions  have  been  disregarded.  The  work  is 
based  on  the  English  language.  The  aim  has  been  to 
record  the  facts,  and  to  avoid  ascribing  to  our  Ian- 


PREFACE.  5 

guage  characteristics  that  it  does  not  possess.  To  se- 
cure consistency,  the  classifications  and  the  definitions 
have  been  rested  upon  uniform  and  well-tested  bases. 

To  make  the  work  concise  it  was  necessary  to 
narrow  the  field.  There  has  been  no  attempt  to  make 
the  book  "  complete."  It  is  of  little  importance  to 
the  average  pupil  how  much  the  learned  know  about 
language.  But  it  is  of  first  importance  how  much  time 
he  shall  be  made  to  spend  in  the  study  of  grammar 
and  how  well  that  time  shall  be  spent.  Recognizing 
this  fact,  the  editor  has  not  hesitated  to  omit  much 
that  heretofore  has  been  deemed  essential,  but  which  is 
really  cumbersome  in  a  text-book;  and,  in  his  determin- 
ation to  consider  the  little  time  pupils  have  at  their  dis- 
posal, and  the  comparative  unimportance  of  a  wide 
knowledge  of  technical  grammar,  he  has  attempted  to 
select  from  the  great  mass  of  material  only  those  facts 
of  which  one  can  least  afford  to  be  ignorant.  If  the 
book  does  not  contain  all  that  a  teacher  could  wish 
her  pupils  might  know,  the  omissions  have  been  made 
deliberately  and  for  the  pupils'  sake,  with  the  purpose 
of  furnishing  a  book  that  they  can  use.  It  is  with 
this  purpose  that  the  book  has  been  divided  into 
Topics  and  Helps:  the  one  containing  only  the  bare 
subject-matter,  presented  in  a  simple  and  straight- 
forward manner,  without  comment  and  without  su- 
perfluous illustration;  while  the  other  contains  all  that 
seems  necessary  of  explanation  and  illustration. 

The  editor  wishes  to  disclaim  any  intention  of 
promulgating  a  creed  of  English  grammar.  His  de- 
voted  wish  has  been   to   present  the   truth  and  to 


6  PREFACE. 

furnish  a  trustworthy  guide  to  the  grammatical  study 
of  his  mother, tongue.  Should  there  be  any  hesitation 
to  accept  the  principles  herein  stated,  he  begs  leave  to 
be  excused  from  resting  his  case  upon  any  one's  doc- 
trine, but  to  be  permitted  to  appeal  to  the  English 
language  of  to-day. 

In  preparing  this  little  book  the  only  part  of  the 
work  that  was  a  task  was  the  determining  what  not  to 
omit.  All  teachers  are  agreed  that  a  hand-book 
should  be  brief ;  but  all  are  not  agreed  upon  what 
are  essentials  and  what  are  not.  However,  there  has 
been  no  hesitation  in  excluding  foreign  matter,  such 
as  belongs  to  the  province  of  rhetoric  and  etymology. 
So  with  the  many  subdivisions  of  the  classes  of  words. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  work  is  not  a  course  of  "  lan- 
guage lessons." 

The  editor  desires  criticism  upon  his  system,  and 
most  cordially  invites  suggestions  concerning  his  ma- 
terial. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  J.  G.  Scott,  to  whose 
instructions  I  owe  my  acquaintance  with  this,  his 
system  of  grammar,  and  whose  counsel  has  been  of 
great  value  to  me  in  the  preparation  of  these  topics. 

A,  H.,  EDITOR. 
Hempstead,  L.  I.,  N.  Y. 
Aug.  1881. 


PLAN. 

[For  full  Index  to  Pages  see  the  end  of  the  Book.] 

TOPICS. 

Grammar,  def.  (=defined.) 
English  Grammar,  def. 

Propositions,  parts. 
Subject,  def. 
Predicate,  def. 

Attribute,  def. 

Copula,  def. 

Proposition,  def. 

Classes  of  Words,  general  divisions. 
Nouns,  def. 
Pronouns,  def. 
Adjectives,  def. 

(To  limit,  def.) 
Verbs,  def. 

(Object  of  a  Verb,  def.) 
Adverbs,  def. 
Prepositions,  def. 

(Object  of  a  Preposition,  def.) 
Conjunctions,  def. 
Participles,  def. 
Infinitives,  def. 

Propositions,  kinds.  ■ 
Declarative. 
Imperative. 
Interrogative. 
Simple. 
Compound. 
Complex. 

Clauses. 

(Phrases.) 
Uses. 

m 


5  PLAN. 

Classes  of  Words,  separately  studied. 
Nouns  :.  Some  kinds. 
Properties. 

Numbers,  def. 
Genders,  def. 
Cases,  def. 
Rules. 
Pronouns :  Some  kinds. 
Properties. 

Persons,  def. 

Genders,  Numbers,  Cases. 
Rules. 
Adjectives  :  Some  kinds. 
Properties. 

Comparison. 
Verbs  :  Some  kinds. 
Properties. 

Persons,  Numbers, 
Tenses,  def. 

Tense  phrases. 
Rules. 
Adverbs  :  Some  kinds. 
Comparison. 
Conjunctions  :  Some  kinds. 
Participles  :  Imperfect. 

Perfect. 
Infinitives'.  Root. 

In  uing." 

HELPS. 

Hints,  Examples,  Illustrations,  Lists. 


TOPICS 


1* 


REMARK. 

The  Topics  contain  mainly  the  bare  sub- 
stance of  the  various  subjects  in  such  form 
that  the  student  may  readily  refer  to  them 
for  the  salient  facts  of  grammar.  The  Helps 
(see  p.  73)  contain  remarks  useful  to  the  stu- 
dents who  need  additional  assistance,  and  to 
teachers  who  desire  hints  concerning  the  pre- 
sentation of  the  topics.  The  teacher  should 
read  both  farts  of  this  book  through  before 
using  it  in  class. 


TOPICS. 


DEFINITION    OF    GRAMMAR. 


THE    FIELD    OF    STUDY    LIMITED. 

1,  a.  Every  word  is  said  to  express  an  idea. 

b.  Words  may  be  combined  in  various  ways. 
For  example,  the  words  horse  and  black  may  be 
written  horse  black,  or  {j,^1^,  or  black  horse.  In  the 
first  two  cases  there  is  not;  any  necessary  connection 
of  the  ideas  expressed  by  horse  and  black.  But  in 
the  third  case,  on  account  of  the  arrangement  of  the 
two  words,  we  are  led  to  connect  the  idea  expressed 
by  black  with  the  idea  expressed  by  horse.  When 
words  are  combined  as  black  and  horse  are  in  the 
third  example,  they  are  said  to  be  related.  Whence 
it  appears  that 

C  Words  are  related  when  they  are  so  com- 
bined as  to  lead  us  to  put  together  the  ideas  expressed 
by  them. 

d.  Just  as  we  say  that  things  which  are  combined 
are  in  a  combined  state,  we  may  say  of  the  words 

["I 


12  TOPICS. 

Grammar  defined. 

black  horse j  or  any  other  related  words,  that  they  are 
in  a  related  state.  To  such  a  state  we  will  give  the 
name  relation;  hence, 

e.  The  relation  of  words  is  the  state  words 
are  in  when  they  are  related. 

2,  a.  In  the  expression, 

h  e  mended  li  i  s  own  coat, 
the  word  his  indicates  ownership  ;  the  word  he  does 
not.  His  is  related  to  the  other  words  in  one  way  ; 
he  is  related  to  them  in  another  way.  The  two 
words,  then,  differ  in  their  relations  to  the  expression. 
The  same  is  true  of  they  and  their  in 

-they   knew  their  business. 

b.  These  illustrations  show  us  that  words  may  be 
used  in  different  relations. 

C.  Moreover,  he  and  his,  though  differently 
spelled,  are  practically  one  and  the  same  word. 
They  differ  in  form.  This  is  true  of  they  and  their 
also.  Hence  it  appears,  too,  that  a  word  may  have 
different  forms. 

d.  Now  it  would  not  be  proper  to  use  his  in  the 
place  of  he,  in  the  first  expression,  and  he  in  the 
place  of  his,  saying, 

his  mended  he  own  coat. 
Nor  would  it  be  proper  to  say 

their    knew    they    business. 
In  short,  we  may  not  use  different  forms  of  words  in- 
discriminately in  different  relations. 


TOPICS.  13 

Grammar  defined. 


e.  Words,  then,  may  be  used  in  different  rela- 
tions, and  for  various  relations  various  forms  may  be 
used,  but  not  promiscuously.  In  studying  language 
we  may  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  words 
and  of  the  forms  words  take  in  their  various  relations. 
Such  knowledge  we  will  call  grammar.     Therefore, 

f.  Grammar  is  a  knowledge  of  the  relations  of 
words  and  of  the  forms  words  take  in  their  various 
relations. 

g.  English  grammar  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
relations  of  words  in  the  English  language  and  of 
the  forms  the  words  take  in  their  various  relations. 

(For  Remarks  on  the  Definition  of  Grammar,  see  p.  77.) 


14  TOPICS. 


PARTS     OF     PROPOSITIONS. 


DEFINITION    OF    THE    PROPOSITION. 

3,  a.  By  means  of  the  expression 
snow  is  melting, 
something  is  said  of  the  substance  snow.     The  sub- 
stance snow,  then,  is  that  of  which  something  is  said. 

The  word  snow  is  a  part  of  the  whole  expression  ; 
it  is  used  to  represent  the  substance  snow,  that  is, 
to  represent  that  of  which  something  is  said.  Such 
a  part  is  called  the  subject  of  an  expression,  there- 
fore, 

b*  The  Subject  of  an  expression  is  that  part  of 
the  expression  which  is  used  to  represent  that  of 
which  something  is  said. 

C.  We  may  say 

the    snow   is  melting,  or 

the   exposed   snow  is  melting,  or 

the   slowly   falling   snow  is  melting. 

In  these  examples  the  snow,  and  the  exposed  snow,  and 
the  slowly  falling  snow,  are  all  parts  representing  that  of 
which  something  is  said.  Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
subject  of  an  expression  may  be  not  one  word  only,  but 
may  comprise  a  number  of  words. 

d.  But  in  each  of  these  examples  the  word  snow 
is  the  only  single  word  in  the  subject  which  may  be 
used  alone  as  the  subject  of  the  expression.     Such  a 


TOPICS.  15 

Divisions  of  the  proposition. 


single  word,  when  it  is  one  of  a  number  of  words 
forming  a  subject,  is  called  the  bare  subject. 

e.  The  several  words,  including  the  bare  subject, 
which  together  form  the  whole  subject,  are  called  the 

COMPLETE    SUBJECT. 

In  using  the  term  subject  we  shall  designate  the  bare  sub- 
ject, except  when  the  context  clearly  indicates  the  other  mean- 
ing. 

4,  a.  Again,  in 

snow  is  melting, 
is  melting  is  a  part  by  means  of  which  something  is 

said  concerning  the  substance  snow,  that  is,  concern- 
ing that  which  is  represented  by  the  subject.  Such 
a  part  of  an  expression  is  called  the  predicate  ; 
hence, 

b.  The  Predicate  of  an  expression  is  that  part 
of  the  expression  by  means  of  which  something  is 
said  of  that  represented  by  the  subject. 

C.  Predicates,  also,  may  be  BARE  PREDICATES  and 
complete  predicates  ;  bare  and  complete  applied  to 
predicates  having  a  signification  similar  to  that  of  bare  and 
complete  applied  to  subjects. 

5,  a.  Referring  to  the  preceding  example,  the  word 
melting  is  a  part  of  the  predicate  which  indicates  a 
condition  of  the  substance  snow,  that  is,  a  condition 
of  that  represented  by  the  subject.     In  the  expression 

snow  is  white, 
white  is   a  part  of   the  predicate  which  indicates  a 


1 6  TOPICS. 

Divisions  of  the  proposition. 

quality  of  that  represented  by  the  subject.  Such  a 
part  of  an  expression,  as  either  melting  or  white,  is 
called  an  attribute  ;  therefore, 

b.  The  Attribute  of  an  expression  is  that  part 
of  the  predicate  which  is  used  to  indicate  a  condition 
or  a  quality  of  that  represented  by  the  subject. 

Attributes,  also,  may  be  bare  or  complete. 

If  the  definitions  of  a  predicate  and  an  attribute  are  rightly 
interpreted,  it  will  be  understood  that  a  predicate  asserts,  while 
an  attribute  merely  indicates. 

6,  a.  In  both 

snow  i  s  melting,  and 
snow  is  white, 

is  is  used  to  connect  the  subject  and  the  attribute, 

and  is  a  part  of  the  predicate.  Such  a  part  is  called 
the  copula  ;  consequently, 

b.  The  Copula  of  an  expression  is  that  part  of 
the  predicate  which  is  used  to  connect  the  subject 
and  the  attribute. 

Observe  that  the  definition  does  not  say  that  a  copula  does  not 
assert.  The  copula  is  the  assertive  element  in  predicates  com- 
posed of  a  copula  and  an  attribute. 

C.  In  the  examples  above,  the  copula  is  composed 
of  a  single  word.     Let  the  expressions, 
the  snow  has  been  melting,  and 
the  snow  will  have  been  melting,  and 
the  snow  is  just  about  to  be  melted, 

illustrate  the  fact"  that  a  copula  may  be  composed  of 
two  or  more  words. 


TOPICS.  1 7 

Divisions  of  the  proposition. 

7,  a.  Snow  is  melting*, 

the  snow  falls, 

the  wind  has  begun  to  Mow  violently,  and 
the  beautiful  evening  star  is  sinking  toward 
the  western  horizon, 

are  all  expressions  combining  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate. Such  a  combination  is  called  a  proposition  ; 
therefore, 

b.  A  Proposition  is  a  combination  of  a  subject 
and  a  predicate. 

It  follows  that  an  expression  which  lacks  either  a  subject  or  a 
predicate  is  not  a  proposition. 

C.  There  are  various  kinds  and  uses  of  propositions,  the 
description  of  some  of  which  involves  the  use  of  terms  we 
have  not  yet  defined.  The  subject  will  be  treated  farther 
on  (see  p.  29). 

See  p.  84  concerning  the  basis  of  the  divisions  of  the  proposi- 
tion. 

8.  The  expression, 

he  can  write  as  well  as  I, 
contains   one    complete    proposition,   he  can  write. 

But  the  expression  is  clearly  intended  to  convey  the 
idea  that  the  person  represented  by  I,  also,  can  write, 
although  I  can  write  is  not  said  in  so  many  words. 
To  completely  express  the  sense  of  the  statement  it 
would  be  necessary  to  add  the  words  can  write. 
Any  part  which,  though  not  actually  employed,  yet 
really  belongs  to  a  statement,  is  said  to  be  under- 
stood. It  is  always  permissible  in  explaining  an  ex- 
pression, to  insert  any  understood  part  or  parts.  In- 
deed, it  is  not  only  permissible  but  necessary. 


1 8  TOPICS. 


CLASSES    OF    WORDS. 


9.  Remark. — The  combination  of  letters  chip,  employed  in 
one  connection,  may  mean  a  bit  of  substance,  say  wood  or  mar- 
ble, obtained  in  a  certain  way.  The  same  combination  of  let- 
ters, chip,  employed  in  another  connection,  may  mean  a  certain 
act  combining  breaking  and  splitting.  Used  in  the  one  way 
£hip  will  be  one  word;  used  in  the  other  way  it  will  be  a  differ- 
ent word  from  the  first.  In  the  one  case  it  will  belong  to  a  cer- 
tain class  of  words  ;  in  the  other  case  it  will  belong  to  an  entire- 
ly different  class.  The  same  in  effect  is  true  of  many  other 
words,  numerous  illustrations  of  which  will  present  themselves 
to  the  student  of  grammar.  It  is  a  principle  which  should  be 
borne  distinctly  and  constantly  in  mind,  that,  in  classifying  words, 
dependence  must  not  be  placed  upon  spelling,  solely,  as  a  means 
of  distinguishing  different  words.  In  what  ways  the  necessary 
distinctions  can  be  safely  made  will  appear  in  the  topics  fol- 
lowing. (For  Exercises  on  the  several  classes  of  words  turn  to 
the  corresponding  sections  in  Helps.) 


THE    CLASSES    OF    WORDS    DEFINED. 

10,  a.  Anything  of  which  we  may  think  is  called 

an  OBJECT  OF  THOUGHT. 

b.  In  the  expression,     ' 

the  child  is  father  to  the  man, 
child  names  an  object  of  thought  and  is  used  as  the 
subject  of  a  proposition.     Any  word  that  names  an 
object  of  thought,  and  that  may  be  used  as  a  subject, 
Is  a  noun;  therefore, 


TOPICS.  19 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


C.  A  Noun  is  a  word  which  names  an  object  of 
thought,  and  which  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
proposition. 

So  with  father  and  man,  above  ;  each  names  an  object 
of  thought,  and  each  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
proposition.     Father  and  man  are  therefore  nouns. 

d.  It  is  not  enough  in  defining  a  noun  to  say  a 
noun  is  a  name.  For  every  word  may  be  said  to  be 
the  name  of  an  idea.     But  not  every  word  is  a  noun. 

e.  There  is  one  exception  to  every  definition  of  a 
class  of  words,  viz.,  a  word  employed  as  the  name  of 
itself,  as  when  we  say, 

"truly"  is  an  adverb. 

Any  word  so  used  becomes  a  noun. 

There  is  a  distinction  between  may  be  used  and  is  used  which 
the  student  should  carefully  note.     (See  p.  20,  e.) 

11,  a.  The  word  h  i  s ,  in 

the  emperor  has  met  his  fate, 

is  not  a  noun,  but  is  used  in  the  stead  of  emperor, 
which  is  a  noun.     It  is  a  pronoun;  hence, 

b.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word,  not  a  noun,  used  in- 
stead of  a  noun. 

12,  a.  The  word  soldiers,  when  used  alone,  in- 
cludes in  its  application  all  soldiers.  But,  by  using 
the  word  valiant  with  the  word  soldiers,  the  applica- 
tion of  soldiers  is  made  more  definite  and  we  are  led 
to   apply  it  to  only  those   soldiers  who   are  valiant. 


20  TOPICS. 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


When  one  word  is  so  used  with  another  word,  it  is 
said  to  limit  or  restrict  that  other  word;  therefore, 

b.  A  word  limits  or  restricts  another  word 
when  it  is  so  used  with  that  other  word  as  to  lead  us 
to  make  a  more  definite  application  of  it. 

c.  The  valiant  soldiers  rushed  into  the  jaws  of 

death. 

Here  valiant  is  neither  a  noun  nor  a  pronoun;  it  is 
placed  directly  before  a  noun,  soldiers,  and  it  is  used 
to  limit  that  noun.  Any  word  of  which  these  things 
are  true,  and  which  may  be  so  used,  is  an  adjective; 
from  which  it  follows  that 

d.  An  Adjective  is  a  word,  neither  noun  nor 
pronoun,  which  may  be  placed  directly  before  a 
noun  to  limit  it. 

The  word  else,  generally  considered  an  adjective,  is  an  excep- 
tion to  this  definition.  It  cannot  properly  be  placed  directly  be- 
fore a  noun  to  limit  it. 

e.  In 

the  grain  fields  were  green  but  became  golden, 

green  and  golden  are  neither  nouns  nor  pronouns. 
They  are  adjectives  although  they  are  not  placed  di- 
rectly before  a  noun  to  limit  it;  but  they  may  be  so 
placed  and  therein  lies  the  distinction. 

f.  In  the  expressions, 

he  was  a  man  of  means,  and 

to  be  thought  honest  is  creditable, 

a  man  of  means,  in  the  one  case,  limits  he,  in  the 


TOPICS.  21 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


other,  to  be  thought  honest,  is  limited  by  creditable. 

We  learn,  then,  that  not  only  may  one  word  limit  an- 
other word,  but  several  words  may  together  limit  or 
be  limited  as  if  they  were  a  single  word.     (See  p.  34.) 

13,  a.  Many  gases  burn, 

some  gases  are  dense. 

Burn,  in  the  first  example  is  used  as  a  predicate  ;  are, 
in  the  second,  as  a  copula.  A  word  which  may  be 
made  either  a  predicate  or  a  copula  is  called  a  verb  ; 
hence, 

b.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  may  be  used  as  the 
predicate  or  the  copula  of  a  proposition. 

Remark. — Bear  in  mind  that  the  definition  does  not 
say  that  a  verb  is  a  group  of  words,  but  that  a  verb  is 
a  word.     In  the  expressions 

the  flower  looks  wilted, 
the  flowe"r  seems  wilted, 
the  flower  became  wilted, 

looks,  seems,  and  became,  are  verbs.  But  looks 
wilted,  taken  together,  do  not  constitute  a  verb.  Nor 
are  seems  wilted  and  became  wilted  verbs.  So,  like- 
wise, is  wilted  and  has  wilted  are  not  verbs  in 

the  flower  is  wilted, 

the  flower  has  wilted. 

Is  and  has  are  the  verbs  ;  wilted  belongs  to  another 
class  of  words  (see  p.  68,  a,  b).     So,  again,  in 

I  will  have  been  gone  two  hours, 
will  is  the  verb  ;  have,  been,  and  gone  belong  to  other 


2  2  TOPICS. 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


classes.  Concerning  the  treatment  of  verb  phrases, 
see  p.  117. 

C.  If  we  say 

John  struck  James, 

we  represent  John  as  acting  and  James  as  acted  upon. 
That  which  acts  we  call  the  subject  of  an  action. 
That  which  is  acted  upon  is  the  object  of  an  ac- 
tion. In  the  above  expression  the  word  struck  ex- 
presses the  action  of  which  James  is  said  to  be  the 
object,  and  it  is  a  verb  ;  the  word  James  represents 
the  object  of  the  action  expressed  by  that  verb,  and 
is  a  part  of  the  predicate.  Such  a  part  of  a  predi- 
cate is  called  the  object  of  a  verb  ;  therefore, 

d.  The  Object  of  a  verb  is  that  part  of  the 
predicate  of  a  proposition  which  represents  the  ob- 
ject of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb. 

Like  a  subject,  an  object  is  not  necessarily  one  word. 

e.  According  to  the  definition  of  an  object  of  a 
verb,  a  verb,  to  have  an  object,  must  express  action. 
But  in  the  expressions, 

Troy  was, 

the  king  sat  upon  his  throne, 

the  mother  mourned, 

the  verb  was  does  not  express  action  ;  the  verb  sat 
does  express  action,  but  does  not  take  an  object, 
— indeed,  this  verb  rarely  takes  an  object  ;  and 
mourned  expresses  action  without  taking  an  object, 


TOPICS.  23 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


though  the  verb  mourned  is  used  with  an  object  quite 
as  often  as  without. 

f.  Some  verbs,  then,  do  not  take  objects.  Some 
verbs  expressing  action  do  not  take  objects.  And 
some  verbs  expressing  action  take  objects,  but  may- 
be used  without. 

Verbs  which  may  take  an  object,  are  often  called 
transitive  verbs  ;  and  those  which  may  not,  in- 
transitive verbs.  But  it  is  clear,  from  the  exam- 
ples given,  that  whether  a  verb  be  really  transitive  or 
intransitive  depends  upon  the  way  in  which  it  is  used 
in  the  given  case.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  our  purpose 
to  say,  when  the  occasion  arises,  that  a  verb  is  used 
transitively  or  intransitively,  as  the  case  may 
be. 

14,  a.   The  night  was  very  dark, 

the  maid  does  her  work  quickly. 

Very,  in  the  first  example,  is  used  to  limit  dark,  an 
adjective  ;  quickly,  in  the  second,  limits  does,  a  verb ; 
work,  likewise,  limits  the  verb,  but  quickly,  as  a  limit- 
ing word,  differs  from  work  in  not  being  the  object  of 
the  verb.  Any  word  which  may  be  used  as  either 
very  or  quickly  is  used,  is  an  adverb  ;  therefore, 

b.  An  Adverb  is  a  word  which  may  be  used  to 
limit  an  adjective,  or  to  limit  a  verb  without  being 
the  object  of  the  verb. 

C.  He  was  almost  dead, 

I  almost  fell, 
my  task  is  almost  finished, 


24  TOPICS. 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


to  almost  succeed  is  not  enough, 

she  performed  her  part  almost  perfectly, 

the  sun  is  almost  oyer  our  heads. 

In  neither  of  the  last  four  of  these  examples  does 
almost  limit  either  a  verb  or  an  adjective.  But  by 
consulting  the  first  two  examples  it  will  be  seen  that 
this  word  almost,  without  change  of  meaning,  may  be 
used  to  limit  either  an  adjective  or  a  verb,  without 
being  its  object.  It  is  consequently  an  adverb  in  all 
six  cases  according  to  the  definition  (see  p  23). 

d.  But  this  reasoning  must  not  be  misapplied.  It 
does  not  follow  that  because  some  word  spelled  so 
and  so  is  a  member  of  a  given  class,  therefore  every 
word  so  spelled  is  a  member  of  that  class.  For  ex- 
ample, the  words  form  and  setting  may  be  a  verb  and 
an  adjective  respectively,  as  in 

the  clouds  form  a  curtain  to  the  setting  sun; 
but  they  are  not  a  verb  and  an  adjective  respectively 
in 

as  the   sun   was   setting   his   form    appeared    to 
change. 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  form  in  the  first  illustration  is 
different,  not  only  in  its  use  but  also  in  its  meaning 
and  application,  from  form  in  the  second.  And  the 
first  setting  differs  from  the  second  at  least  in  use 
and  application,  and  also  somewhat  in  meaning.  In 
fact,  form  and  setting  in  the  one  example  are  differ- 
ent words  from  the  corresponding  words  in  the  other. 
The  same,  in  substance,  may  be  truly  said  of  many 


TOPICS.  25 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


other  words  spelled  alike  (see  p.  18,  9).  These  ex- 
amples may  serve  to  emphasize  the  principle  that  the 
identity  of  a  word  is  not  fixed  by  its  spelling  alone. 

It  happens  that  there  is  no  word  spelled  almost  be- 
longing to  a  different  class  from  that  to  which  almost 
in  the  above  example  belongs.  But  when  we  meet 
with  such  words  as  form  and  setting,  we  should  deter- 
mine their  meaning,  and  especially  should  ascertain 
what  are  their  characteristic  relations  in  propositions. 
We  can  then  easily  assign  them  to  their  respective 
classes. 

15,  a.  The  word  to  in 

the  meteorite  fell  to  the  earth, 

is  used  to  connect  the  words  fell  and  earth,  and  is 
not  a  copula.     It  is  a  preposition: 

b.  A  Preposition  is  a  word,  not  a  copula,  used 
to  connect  words. 

C.  Of  the  two  words  connected  by  the  preposition, 
the  word  earth  is  the  one  which  follows  it.     In 

that  point  I  will  reach  beyond, 
beyond  is  a  preposition  connecting  reach  and  point, 
and  point  is  that  one  of  the  two  words  connected,  that 
would  follow  the  preposition  if  the  words  were  ar- 
ranged in  their  natural  order.  Earth  and  point  are 
the  objects  of  the  preposition.  Hence  the  defini- 
tion: 

d.  The  Object  of  a  preposition  is  that  one  of 

the  two  words  connected  which  follows  the  preposi- 

2 


26  TOPICS. 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


tion  when  the   words  are  written'  in  a  natural    or- 
der. 

16,  a.  In  the  expression 

spring  came  and  the  snows  disappeared, 
spring  came  is  one  proposition,  and  the  snows  disap- 
peared is  a  second.     The  word  and  is  used  to  connect 
the  two  propositions.     In 

spring  came  when  the  snows  had  disappeared, 
there  are  two  propositions  connected  by  when.  As  a 
connective,  and  differs  from  when  in  not  being  a  part 
of  either  of  the  propositions  connected  ;  while  when, 
in  limiting  both  came  and  disappeared,  is  actually  a 
part  of  both  the  propositions  it  connects.  Such  a 
word  as  and  is  a  conjunction  : 

b.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  two 
propositions  without  forming  a  part  of  either. 

C.  The  word  when,  used  above,  is  plainly  an  adverb. 
In  its  capacity  of  a  connective  it  is  called  a  conjunctive 
adverb.     (See  pp.  23  and  67.) 

d.  A  comparison  of  the  uses  of  prepositions  and 
conjunctions  will  show  that  while  prepositions  con- 
nect words  as  such,  conjunctions,  though  they  may 
be  said  to  connect  words,  do  not  connect  them  as 
such,  but  only  as  they  represent  propositions.  For 
example, 

Mary  and  Thomas  played 
is  a  short  way  of  saying 

Mary  played  and  Thomas  played, 


TOPICS.  27 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


two  propositions  connected  by  and.     Again, 

apples  are  as  good  as  pears 
is  a  way  of  saying 

pears  are  good ;  apples  are  as  good. 

17,  a.  In  the  proposition 

my  watch  is  losing  time, 
the  word  losing,  having  its  origin  in  lose,  a  verb,  may 
be  said  to  be  derived  from  a  verb  ;  it  takes  an  object, 
time,  and  in  that  respect  is  like  a  verb,  and  may  be 
said  to  partake  of  the  nature  of  a  verb  5  it  is  used  to 
limit  a  noun  (watch),  a  use  characteristic  of  adjec- 
tives, and  may  therefore  be  said  to  partake  of  the 
nature  of  an  adjective-  Any  such  word  as  losing  is  a 
participle  ;  therefore, 

b.  A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb 
and  partaking  of  the  nature  of  a  verb  and  of  an  ad- 
jective. 

18,  a. 

His  illness  arose  from  breathing  impure  air- 
Here  breathing  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb  and 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  a  verb.  Moreover,  it  is  the 
object  of  a  preposition  (from),  a  relation  common 
with  nouns,  and  so  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  noun- 
Such  a  word  as  breathing  is  an  infinitive  ;  hence, 

b.  An  Infinitive  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb 
and  partaking  of  the  nature  of  a  verb  and  of  a  noun. 

19,  Recalling  the  definitions  of  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  an 
adjective,  &c.,  &c,  it  will  appear  that  the  division  of  words 


28  TOPICS. 

The  classes  of  words  defined. 


into  classes  is  based  upon  the  uses,  or  relations,  of  words 
as  such  in  propositions.  It  has  already  been  stated  that 
the  spelling  of  a  word  is  not  a  safe  guide  in  determining  its 
class.     (See  p.  18.) 

20.  In 

I  do  not  know,  alas !  what  may  happen, 
is  it  true?  pooh!  I  don't  care, 
this  is,  oh!  so  funny, 

alas,  pooh,  and  oh  are  introduced  quite  regardless  of 
relation  and  even  of  position,  and  might  be  given  any 
other  position,  or  be  omitted  altogether,  without  im- 
pairing the  completeness  of  the  proposition  as  such. 
Their  use  can  perhaps  be  best  described  by  the  col- 
loquial phrase,  "thrown  in;"  and  such  words  are 
accordingly  called  interjections.  Since  they  do 
not  bear  grammatical  relations  to  propositions  they 
cannot  be  classed. 

21.  Many  words,  like 

herself,  handful,  mill-race, 

pea-green,         underline,       notwithstanding, 
double-quick,    forever,  overflowing, 

are  composed  of  two  or  more  words  combined  so  intimate- 
ly as  to  become  practically  one  word.  All  the  classes  of 
words  are  drawn  from  in  making  compound  words,  and 
every  class  of  words  has  compound  words  among  its  mem- 
bers. The  class  to  which  a  compound  word  belongs  is 
determined  exactly  as  with  other  words,  by  the  relations  it 
may  hold  in  propositions,  and  not  by  the  class  membership 
of  the  separate  words  composing  it. 
[Exercises,  &c,  in  the  Helps.] 


TOPICS.  29 


PROPOSITIONS. 


KINDS    OF    PROPOSITIONS 

22.  Comparing  the  propositions, 

the  work  has  been  finished, 

finish  the  work, 

have  you  finished  the  work? 

it  will  appear  that  the  first  is  used  to  make  an  asser- 
tion or  declaration  ;  the  second  to  express  a  com- 
mand ;  the  third  to  make  an  inquiry  or  interrogation. 
Such  a  proposition  as  the  first  is  a  declarative 
proposition.  One  like  the  second  is  an  imperative 
proposition.  Any  proposition  like  the  third  is  an 
interrogative  proposition.  These  terms  almost 
explain  themselves. 

23,  a.  The  work  has  been  finished, 

the  work  has  been  finished  and  the  laborers 
have  been  paid, 

when  the  work  has  been  finished,  the  labor- 
ers shall  be  paid. 

Comparing  these  examples,  the  second  and  third  will 
be  seen  to  be  composed  each  of  two  propositions, 
while  the  first  is  composed  of  only  one.  In  the  third 
example,  the  work  has  been  finished  cannot  strictly 
be  said  to  make  an  independent  assertion.  Its  as- 
sertive force  is  dependent  upon  its  connection,  through 
when,  with  the  laborers  shall  be  paid,  which,  how- 
ever, does  have  a  propositional  force  of  its  own.     The 


3<3  TOPICS. 

Kinds  of  propositions. 

principal  part,  then,  is  taken  by  the  proposition,  the 
laborers  shall  be  paid;  while  the  proposition  when 
the  work  is  finished  merely  limits  the  other  by  indi- 
cating the  time  or  the  condition  of  the  payment,  and 
thus  takes  a  subordinate  part.  So  that  the  one  may 
be  called  a  principal  proposition,  and  the  other  a 

SUBORDINATE    Or     DEPENDENT      PROPOSITION,     terms 

which  almost  explain  themselves. 

b.  In  the  second  example  neither  of  the  proposi- 
tions is  dependent  upon  the  other  ;  they  may  both  be 

Called  INDEPENDENT  PROPOSITIONS. 

24,  a.  Any  proposition,  like  the  first  of  the  exam- 
ples above,  which  contains. only  one  subject  and  one 
predicate,  is  a  simple  proposition. 

b.  A  proposition,  like  the  second,  composed  of  two 
or  more  independent  and  simple  propositions,  is  a 

COMPOUND    PROPOSITION. 

C.  A  proposition,  like  the  third,  composed  of  a 
principal  and  one  or  more  dependent  propositions,  is 
called  a  complex  proposition. 

.  Remark. — The  terms  compound-complex  and 
complex-compound  are  given  to  more  complicated 
propositions.  According  to  some  grammarians,  a 
simple  proposition  is  one  that  is  composed  of  only 
one  subject  and  one  predicate  ;  and  all  others  are 
compound  propositions. 

d.  The  word  Clause  is  a  general  term  often  used 


TOPICS.  3 1 

Kinds  of  propositions. 

to  denote  any  one  of  the  component  propositions  of 
a  compound  or  a  complex  proposition. 

C  The  term  Sentence  is  very  commonly  used  in  a  sense 
practically  equivalent  to  that  of  the  term  Proposition  as  em- 
ployed in  this  book,  But  most  of  the  definitions  of  a  sentence 
say,  in  substance,  that  a  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  to- 
gether expressing  a  complete  thought.  Without  assuming  to 
question  the  accuracy  of  the  definition,  we  may  state  that  such 
definitions  are  based  on  the  meaning  of  the  sentence,  not  on 
the  relations  of  the  parts  composing  it,  and  are,  therefore, 
logical  definitions  rather  than  grammatical.  Terms  employed  in 
a  grammar  would  best  be  used  in  a  grammatical  sense.  If  the 
student  chooses,  for  the  sake  of  variety,  to  use  the  term  sentence 
with  the  meaning  of  the  term  proposition,  no  especial  objection 
can  be  offered,  provided  he  use  the  term  with  that  meaning  in 
every  case. 


THE    SIMPLE    PROPOSITION. 

25,  a.  We  have  learned  that  a  proposition  is  com- 
posed of  two  essential  parts,  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate.    It  has  been  seen  that  the  subject  of  a  proposi- 
tion may  be  a  name  of  something,  or  a  word  used 
instead  of  a  name.     But  the  expressions, 
the  cow  and  the  calf  are  dead, 
to  wait  is  often  tedious, 
it  is  growing  cold,  it  rains,  it  hails, 

illustrate  other  constructions  : 

b.  The  first  example  illustrates  the  fact  that  two  or 
more  names  (or  their  equivalents)  may  be  so  intimate- 
ly connected  as  to  form  practically  one  grammatical 
subject,  taking  one  verb  or  having  one  predicate. 


32  TOPICS. 

The  Simple  Proposition. 

C.  By  the  second  we  are  taught  that  an  infinitive 
may  be  the  subject  of  a  proposition. 

d.  The  propositions  in  the  third  example  have  for 
a  subject  the  word  it,  but  used  here  in  the  place  of 
no  definitely  assignable  noun  or  name.  It,  as  here 
used,  is  called  an  impersonal  pronoun,  and,  as  a 
subject,  an  impersonal  subject. 

e.  The  word  there  may  be  used  somewhat  similarly,  as 
in 

there  once  lived  two  princes. 

But  in  this  case  there,  though  occupying  the  position  of  a 
subject,  is  not  really  a  subject.  Two  princes  is  the  subject, 
and  there  is  an  expletive. 

26>  a,.  In  the  expression, 

they  paid  him  money, 
the  noun  money  is  object  of  the  verb  paid.  So,  also,  is  the 
pronoun  him.  But  we  may  consider  money  to  be  more 
directly  connected  with  paid  than  him  is.  That  one  of  the 
objects  of  a  verb  which  is  most  intimately  connected  with 
the  verb  is  called  the  direct  object;  the  other,  the 
INDIRECT  object.  In  this  case  the  expression,  without 
change  of  meaning,  may  be  made  to  read, 

they  paid  money  to  him. 
Here  the  word  which  was  in  the  other  example  the  indirect 
object  of  the  verb,  is  made  the  object  of  a  preposition,   to. 
The  indirect  object  of  a  verb  is  generally  susceptible  of 
such  a  transposition. 

b.  Participles  and  infinitives,  as  well  as  verbs,  may  take 
a  direct  and  an  indirect  object. 


topics.  33 

Clauses. 

C.  Remark. — Some  persons  hold  that  a  verb  never  has  an 
indirect  object.  They  affirm  that  what  we  have  called  an  INDI- 
RECT object  is  always  the  object  of  a  preposition  expressed  or 
understood. 

d.  In 

they  called  him  a  hero, 

the  construction  is  different  from  that  in 
they  paid  him  money. 
In  the  latter,  money  represents  one  object  of  thought,  and 
him  an  entirely  different  object.  But,  in  the  former,  hero 
and  him  represent  the  same  object.  It  is  not  customary  to 
apply  the  terms  direct  and  indirect  object  to  words  rep- 
resenting the  same  individual.  The  term  attributive 
object  may  be  applied  to  a  word  used  as  hero  is  used  in 
this  example. 


some:  uses  of  propositions  as  clauses. 

27,  a.  In 

how  long  we  shall  stay  is  not  decided, 
how  long  we  shall  stay  is  a  proposition,  used  as  the 
subject.  In  this  respect  it  is  like  a  noun.  Any  word, 
or  phrase,  or  clause,  used  as  a  noun,  is  said  to  be 
used  substantively.  Therefore,  how  long  we  shall 
stay,  above,  is  used  substantively.  Clauses  so  used 
are  called  substantive  clauses.  The  term  noun 
clause  is  used  in  the  same  sense. 

b.  But  nouns  may  be  used  in  other  relations  than  that 

2* 


34  topics. 

Phrases. 

of  subject.  So  substantive  clauses  may  be  used  in  various 
relations. 

28-  In  the  expression, 

the  house  you  painted  white  is  sold, 
you  painted  white,  equivalent  to  which  you  painted 
white,  a  dependent  proposition,  is  used  to  limit  adjec- 
tively  the  word  house,  a  noun.  The  common  name 
for  a  dependent  proposition  used  adjectively  is  ad- 
jective clause. 

29.  He  stood  where  I  could  see  him. 

Where  I  could  see  him  limits  the  verb  stood  adverbially. 
The  student  will  readily  apply  the  term  adverb 
clause. 

30.  It  has  been  already  stated  that  parts  of  proposi- 
tions are  often  omitted,  and  the  term  understood  has  been 
applied  to  such  parts.  The  omission  is  called  an  ellipsis. 
(See  p.  17.) 


PHRASES. 

31,  a-  In  the  proposition, 

at  the  last  it  Mteth  like  a  serpent, 
the  three  words  at  the  last  are  equivalent  to  at  last. 
Both  of  these  expressions  have  the  force  of  finally, 
an  adverb,  and  a  single  word.     We  have  already  seen 
that  in 

he  stood  where  I  could  see  him, 
where  I  could  see  him  has  an  adverbial  force,  and 


topics.  35 

Phrases. 

that  it  is  a  proposition.  But  at  the  last  and  at  last 
are  not  propositions.  Such  a  collection  of  words  as 
at  the  last  or  at  last  is  called  a  phrase  ;  therefore, 

b.  A  Phrase  is  a  collection  of  words,  not  form- 
ing a  proposition,  which  together  have  the  force  of 
a  single  member  of  some  class  of  words. 

32-  Adverbs,  as  in  the  example  above,  are  not  the  only 
words  represented  by  phrases.  With  a  little  thought  the 
student  will  be  able  to  construct  propositions  containing 
phrases  representing  nearly  all  the  other  classes  of  words. 


36  TOPICS. 


THE    CLASSES    OF    WORDS, 

SEPARATELY   STUDIED. 


KINDS,    PROPERTIES  I    RULES. 

33.  Remark. — In  defining  the  classes  of  words  we  have 
sought  out  some  particular  uses  by  which  the  members  of  a  class 
may  be  distinguished.  Every  object,  however,  possesses  quali- 
ties besides  those  which  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  objects  of 
other  classes.  The  same  is  true  of  words.  They  have  uses  and 
properties  not  mentioned  in  a  definition,  but  whose  mention  is 
nevertheless  necessaiy  to  a  reasonably  full  description.  We 
shall  have  to  do  with  some  of  the  most  important  of  these  latter, 
those  we  can  least  afford  to  overlook.  We  will  study  separately 
the  several  classes  of  words,  following  the  order  marked  out  in 
the  preceding  topics. 


SOUffS. 


SOME    KINDS    OF    NOUNS. 
(Hints  and  Exercises  in  Helps.) 

34.     We  have  seen  that  a  word  to  be  a  noun  must 
be  a  name.     The  examples, 

boy,  street,  tune,  country,  and 

John,        Broadway,       Greenville,       France, 

show  us  that  a  word  may  be  the  name  of  an  object  as 
one  of  a  class  of  objects  ;  or  that  it  may  be  the  name 
of  an  individual  object  distinguished  by  it  from  other 
individuals  of  the  same  class.  Such  names  as  boy, 
street,  tune,  country,  coming  under  the  first  head,  are 


topics.  37 

The  Noun  :   Numbers. 


generally  called  common  nouns  ;  while  names  like 
John,  Broadway,  Greenville,  France,  the  names  of  indi- 
vidual objects,  are  called  proper  nouns. 

35-  Compound  nouns.     (See  p.  28.) 

36-  Nouns  like 

assemblage,       people,       throng,       herd, 
family,  dozen,         pair, 

which  in  the  singular  signify  a  collection  of  things,  are  called 
COLLECTIVE  NOUNS  or  COLLECTIVES. 


NUMBERS. 

(Hints  and  Exercises  in  Helps.) 

37,  a.  In  the  expression, 

listen  to  the  song  of  songs, 
song  and  songs  are  forms  used  respectively  to  distin- 
guish one  and  more  than  one.     Such  forms  of  words 
are  called  numbers  ;  therefore, 

b.  Numbers  are  forms  of  words  used  to  distin- 
guish one  and  more  than  one. 

C.  The  form  song  distinguishes  one  from  more  than 
one  ;  songs,  more  than  one  from  one.  Such  a  form 
as  the  first  is  a  singular  number  ;  as  the  second,  a 
plural  number.  Other  examples  are  hook,  hooks ; 
man,  men.     Song,  hook,  man,  are  nouns  ;  therefore, 

d.  Nouns  have  Numbers :  singular  and  plu- 
ral.    English  nouns  have  only  these  two  numbers. 


38  TOPICS. 

The  Noun :    Numbers. 

38.  In  saying  that  nouns  have  numbers  we  apply  the 
term  nouns  to  the  class  nouns,  not  to  any  individual  mem- 
ber of  the  class.  And  so  with  the  names  of  other  classes. 
For  while  it  is  true  that  nouns  as  a  class  have  numbers, 
such  nouns  as  sheep*  deer,  are  exceptions.  Sheep  does 
not  distinguish  one  from  more  than  one,  nor  more  than  one 
from  one.  Nor  is  there  any  authorized  form  of  the  word 
sheep  which  serves  such  a  purpose.  In  fact,  the  noun 
sheep  has  not  any  number.     Likewise  the  noun  deer. 

39*  Some  words,  again,  often  employ  their  singular 
form  with  a  plural  meaning,  as, 

fish,  pike,  foot,  ton. 
Such  is  especially  true  of  collectives.     For  example, 
dozen,  set,  pair,  head  (of  cattle). 

40-  Certain  abstract  objects  of  thought,  such  as  thoughtful- 
ness,  simplicity,  music,  can  hardly  be  conceived  as  existing  in 
numbers,  but  only  as  one.  Therefore,  the  names  of  such  will 
have,  as  a  rule,  only  one  number  form,  the  singular. 


FORMATION    OF    PliTJRALS    OF    NOUNS. 

41,  a-  Plurals  may  be  either  spoken  or  written. 
By  pronouncing  the  plurals  of  the  singular  nouns, 
hat,  bag,  watch,  it  will  appear  that  the  spoken  plurals 
of  these  words  are  produced  respectively  by  adding 
the  sound  of  s,  z,  and  £z  to  the  spoken  singular. 
Plurals  formed  as  these  are,  are  regular  spoken 
plurals.     Other  spoken  plurals  are  irregular. 


topics.  39 

The  Noun  :  Numbers. 


b.  In  the  first  case  the  sound  of  s  is  added  rather  than 
the  sound  of  z,  because  that  sound  combines  more  readily 
with  the  last  sound  of  the  singular;  in  the  second  case,  the 
sound  of  z  combines  more  readily  with  the  last  sound  of 
the  singular ;  in  the  third  case  neither  the  sound  of  s  nor 
that  of  z  will  combine  readily  with  the  last  sound  of  the 
singular,  and  therefore  the  sound  of  £z  is  added. 

42-  Hats,  the  written  plural  of  the  noun  hat,  is 
formed  by  adding  s  to  the  written  singular  ;  bags,  the 
plural  of  bag,  by  adding  likewise  s  %  watches,  plural 
of  watch,  by  adding  es.  In  these  plurals  the  s  repre- 
sents the  sound  respectively  of  s  and  of  z ;  and  the  e§, 
the  sound  of  £z.  Such  written  plurals  are  regular 
written  plurals.  Other  written  plurals  are  ir- 
regular. 


OF    IRREGULAR    WRITTEN    PLURALS, 

(For  Lists  of  Irregular  Plurals  see  the  end  of  the  Helps.) 

43.  Beauty,  duty,  pony,  are  nouns  singular  ending 
in  j  preceded  by  a  consonant.  The  plurals  of  these 
words  are  beauties,  duties,  ponies,  formed  by  substi- 
tuting i  for  y  and  adding  es.  The  plural  of  other 
similar  nouns  is  formed  in  the  same  way. 

44.  Hero,  negro,  potato,  are  nouns  singular  ending  in 
o  preceded  by  a  consonant.  The  plurals  of  these  words  are 
heroes,  negroes,  potatoes,  formed  by  adding  es.  The 
plural  of  most  similar  nouns  is  formed  in  the  same  way. 


40  TOPICS. 

The  Noun  :  Numbers. 


45.  Court-martial,  man-of-war,  are  compound  nouns, 
singular  number.  Of  these  the  plurals  are  courts-martial, 
men-of-war,  formed  in  each  case  by  pluralizing  the  most 
important  part  of  the  word.  Most  compound  nouns  are 
thus  pluralized. 

46.  The  words  five,  aitch,  plus,  are  nouns  singular; 
plurals,  fives,  aitches,  pluses.  The  first  singular  is  gener- 
ally represented  by  the  figure  5,  the  second  by  the  letter  h, 
the  third  by  the  sign  +.  When  the  singulars  are  thus 
represented,  the  plurals  are  commonly  represented  by 
5's,  h's,  +  's,  i.  e.,  by  affixing  an  apostrophe  and  an  s  to 
the  sign  for  the  singular.  The  same  is  true  generally  of 
other  figures,  letters,  and  signs;  and  also  of  any  word 
used  as  its  own  name,  as, 

the  paragraph  contains  too  many  and's. 

47.  The  nouns  minutia  and  dogma  are  words  taken  from 
foreign  languages.  For  the  plural  of  minutia  we  employ 
minutiae,  the  regular  foreign  plural  of  that  word.  For  the 
plural  of  dogma  we  generally  use  dogmas,  formed  by  plu- 
ralizing in  the  English  way ;  but  we  may  use  dogmata,  the 
regular  foreign  plural  of  dogma.  In  general  terms,  then, 
we  use  the  regular  foreign  plural  of  some  foreign  words, 
while  of  others  we  may  use  either  the  regular  foreign  plu- 
ral or  a  plural  formed  according  to  the  rule  for  English 
nouns. 

If  a  foreign  word  is  pluralized  in  both  ways,  the  English 
plural  is  preferred  in  ordinary  social  conversation ;  and  the 
foreign,  in  scientific. 

There  are  many  other  irregular  plurals  which  can  be  learned 
best,  perhaps,  by  observation.  Lists  of  irregular  plurals  will  be 
found  on  p.  123. 


TOPICS.  41 

The  Noun :  Genders. 


GENDERS. 

(Hints,  Exercises,  and  Lists,  in  Helps.) 

48,  a.  In  the  expression, 

the  prince  and  the  princess  are  fond  of 
society, 

the  form  prince  represents  an  object  as  belonging  to 
one  sex,  and  princess  an  object  as  belonging  to  the 
other  sex.  Hence  we  may  affirm  that  they  distin- 
guish objects  in  regard  to  sex.  Such  forms  of  words 
are  called  genders  ;  therefore, 

b.  Genders  are  forms  of  words  used  to  distinguish 
objects  in  regard  to  sex. 

C.   Such  a  form  as  prince  is  a  masculine  gender  : 
A  MASCULINE  gender  is  that  form  of  a  word  which 
represents  an  object  as  belonging  to  the  male  sex. 

d.  Such  a  form  as  princess  is  a  feminine  gender  : 

A  feminine  gender  is  that  form  of  a  word  which 
represents  an  object  as  belonging  to  the  female  sex. 

Remark. — When  we  say, 

the  moon  sheds  her  light, 
we  use  the  form  her  to  represent  the  moon  as  belonging  to  the 
female  sex.     The  moon  does  not  have  sex. 

e.  Prince,  princess,  and  likewise  count,  countess,  are 

nouns  ;  therefore, 

Nouns  have  G-enders.  masculine  and  femi- 
nine. 

49.  Most  of  the  feminine  genders  that  are  formed  from 
a  masculine  are  made  by  the  addition  of  ess  to  the  mascu- 
line, as  heiress  from  heir.     The  tendency  now  is  (1881)  to 


42  TOPICS. 

The  Noun :  Cases. 


discard  the  feminine  forms  and  to  use  the  masculine  form 
indifferently  for  either  male  or  female.  Thus  the  editor  of 
a  paper  may  be  either  a  man  or  a  woman. 

50.  A  form  used  to  represent  an  object  as  belonging  to 
no  sex,  if  there  is  such  a  form,  would  be  called  a  neuter 

GENDER. 

In  words  such  as  friend,  child,  parent,  there  is  nothing 
to  distinguish  the  sex  of  the  object  represented  ;  .and  such 
words  as  tin,  warmth,  sensitiveness,  never  in  themselves 
convey  even  a  suggestion  of  sex.  Such  words  have  no 
gender. 

English  nouns  have  only  the  two  genders,  masculine 
and  feminine, 

5 1 .  Genders  are  little  used  in  the  English  language,  but 
substitutes  for  them  are  employed.     For  example,  in 

the  hoy  and  the  girl  sing  well  together, 
hoy  and  girl  are  distinct  words.  Girl  is  not  a  form  of  hoy, 
and  hoy  is  not  a  form  of  girl.  But  they  are  equivalent  to 
genders  of  each  other,  one  meaning  a  young  male  of  the 
human  kind,  and  the  other  a  young  female  of  the  same 
kind.  To  such  words  the  term  GENDER  EQUIVALENTS 
may  be  conveniently  applied. 


52,  a. 

That  life  is  long  which  answers  life's 
great  end. 

Here  the  form  life  is  used  in  the  relation  of  subject; 
the  form  life's,  in  the  relation  of  a  limiting  word. 


topics.  43 

The  Noun :  Cases. 


The  latter  form  is  not  appropriate  to  the  relation  in 
which  life  is,  nor  the  former  to  the  relation  in  which 
life's  is.  It  is  on  account  of  the  relation  of  the  word 
in  each  case  that  the  particular  form  is  used.  Such 
forms  are  Cases  ;  therefore, 

b.  Cases  are  forms  of  words  used  on  account  of 
the  relations  the  words  hold  to  other  words. 

C.  The  first  of  the  forms  above  is  the  simple  form 
of  the  noun,  the  naming  form,  and  is  called  a  simple 

CASE  Or  NOMINATIVE  CASE. 

d.  Forms  like  the  second,  which  is  here  used  to 
limit  another  word  in  a  certain  way,  are  typically  and 
generally  used  to  limit  by  denoting  possession,  and 
are  accordingly  called  possessive  cases  : 

e.  A  Possessive  Case  is  a  form  used  to  limit, 
ordinarily  by  denoting  possession. 

f.  Life,  life's,  and  John,  John's,  are  nouns  ;  there- 
fore, 

Nouns  have  Cases:  simple  or  nominative  and 
possessive.     English  nouns  have  no  other  cases. 


Formation  of  the  Possessire. 

53,  a. 
This  casket  India's  glowing  gems  unlocks, 
words  are  men's  daughters, 
hy  others'  faults  wise  men  correct  their  own. 

In  these  expressions  the  words  India's,  men's,  and 


44  topics. 

The  Noun :  Cases. 

others'  are  possessives  ;  the  first  is  a  singular,  the 
second  and  third  are  plurals.  The  first  and  second 
are  formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s  to 
the  simple  or  nominative  case.  The  nominative  case 
of  the  third  is  a  plural,  ending  in  s  :  its  possessive  is 
formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  only.  With  a  few 
exceptions,  the  possessives  of  other  nouns  are  formed 
in  the  same  way.     Whence  the  rule  : 

b.  The  possessive  case  of  a  noun  should  be 
formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s  to 
the  nominative  case  ;  unless  the  noun  be  a  plural 
ending  in  $,  in  which  event  the  apostrophe  alone 
should  be  added. 

C.  When  the  nominative  singular  ends  in  s,  the 
poets  sometimes  add  the  apostrophe  alone  in  forming 
the  possessive.  The  weight  of  authority  favors  the 
employment  in  prose  of  the  additional  s. 

54.  The  preposition  of  is  frequently  used  with  an  ob- 
ject, the  two  together  forming  a  phrase  equivalent  to  a  pos- 
sessive noun.     Thus, 

the  roar  of  the  wares 
is  equivalent  to, 

the  waves'  roar. 
The  simple  case  with  the  preposition  is  generally  to  be 
preferred  to  the  possessive  case. 


topics.  45 

The  Noun  ;  Cases :  Rules. 


RULES    FOR    THE     CONSTRUCTION    OF    NOUNS. 

To  CONSTRUCT  a  noun  properly  in  any  given  relation 
is  to  use  the  proper  form  for  that  relation. 

For  Noun  as  Subject. 

55,  a.  In 

earth  with  a  thousand  voices  praises  God, 
earth  is  a  noun  used  as  subject  and  is  in  the  nomina- 
tive case.     It  is  agreed  that  any  noun'  so  used  shall  be 
in  the  nominative  case.     Hence  the  rule  : 

b.     A   noun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition 
must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Must  be  is  used  in  the  sense  of  must  be  put. 

For  Noun  as  Attribute. 

56,  a.  In  the  expression, 

innocence  is  his  shield, 
shield  is  a  noun  used  as  attribute  and  is  in  the  nomi- 
native case.     It  is  agreed  that  a  noun  so  used  shall  be 
in  the  nominative  case.     Rule  : 

b.  A   noun  used  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposition 
must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

For  Noun  used  as  Object. 

57,  a.  In 

lives  there  a  man  who  loves  his  pain? 
pain  is  a  noun  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb.     It  is  in 
the  simple   or  nominative  case.     It  is  agreed  that  a 
noun  so  used  shall  be  in  the  nominative  case.     Rule  : 


46  TOPICS. 

The  Noun  :  Cases  :  Rules. 


b.  A  noun  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  must  be 
in  the  nominative  case. 

REMARK. — Do  not  confuse  the  terms  relation  and  case. 
A  noun  used  as  object  is  in  the  objective  relation.  A  noun 
used  as  subject  is  in  the  subjective  relation.     In 

he  does  not  love  his  pain,  and 

the  pain  is  severe, 
pain  is  used,  first,  in  the  objective  relation,  and  secondly,  in 
the  subjective  relation.    Pain  in  the  first  example  is  identi- 
cal in  form  with  pain  in  the  second.     It  is  the  simple  form , 
or,  as  we  have  named  that  form,  the  nominative  case. 

For  Noun  in  other  Relations. 

58,  a.  In  the  same  way,  by  employing  expressions 
like  the  following,  the  students  may  derive  rules  for 
the  construction  of  nouns  used  respectively  as  the  ob- 
ject of  a  Preposition,  a  Participle,  and  an  Infinitive  : 

they  struggle  for  renown, 

the  farmer's  hoy  is  ploughing  corn, 

he  loves  to  sing  his  little  song, 

b.  In 

that  is  a  book  of  William's, 
the  use  of  the  possessive  after  a  preposition  is  peculiar.     The 
possessive  so  used  is  considered  more  emphatic  than  when  used 
in  the  ordinary  way.     To  explain  the  expression  we  read, 

that  is  a  book  of  William's  books, 
which  means  practically, 

that  is  one  of  William's  books. 
So  that  the  apparent  anomaly  is  really  a  regular  employment  of 
a  noun  in  the  possessive  to  limit  another  noun  (understood). 


topics.  47 

The  Noun  :  Cases  :  Rules. 


For  the  Possessive. 

59,  a.    In  the  proposition, 

my  life  is  my  foe's  debt, 
foe's  is  a  noun  used  to  limit  the  noun  debt,  which  de- 
notes a  different  thing  from  that  denoted  by  foe's* 
Foe's  is  a  possessive  case.  It  is  agreed  that  a  noun 
used  as  foe's  is  used  shall  be  in  the  possessive  case. 
Rule  : 

b.  A  noun  used  to  limit  another  noun  denoting  a 
different  person  or  thing  must  be  in  the  possessive 
case. 

C  If  the  limiting  noun  actually  denotes  possession  the 
rule  may  be  stated  :  A  noun  used  to  limit  by  denoting  pos- 
session must  be  in  the  possessive  case. 

For  Noun  in  Apposition. 

60,  a. 

For  the  sake  of  David,  my  servant. 

Here  the  word  servant  is  a  noun  limiting  another 
noun  (David)  which  denotes  the  same  person.  The 
two  nouns  are  practically  alike  in  their  relation  to  the 
rest  of  the  proposition.  A  noun  used  as  servant  is, 
in  this  proposition,  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with 
the  noun  it  limits  ;  or  the  two  are  in  apposition. 
David  and  servant  are  in  the  same  case.  Hence  the 
rule  : 

b.  Nouns  in  apposition  shall  be  in  the  same  case. 

C.  If  nouns  in  the  possessive  are  in  apposition  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  only  one  possessive  sign  and  to  join  that  to 


48  topics. 

The  Noun  :  Cases  :  Rules. 


the  possessive  which  stands  directly  before  the  word  which 
the  possessive  limits,  as  in 

for  my  servant  David's  sake. 
In  this  case  the  possessive  sign,  though  written  in  immedi- 
ate connection  with  David,  is  supposed  to  belong  just  as 
much  to  servant  as  to  David. 

For  Noun  Independent. 

61,  a. 

My  friends,  I  come  not  here  to  talk. 
Friends  does  not  really  form  a  part  of  a  proposition, 
and  is  in  that  respect  independent  of  grammatical  re- 
lations. Words  so  used  are  said  to  be  grammati- 
cally independent.  Friends  is  in  the  nominative 
case.  It  is  agreed  that  a  noun  grammatically  inde- 
pendent, &c,  &c.     Rule. 

62.  Instead  of  a  separate  rule  for  each  construction  we 
may  frame  general  rules  to  cover  similar  constructions,  re- 
ducing the  number  of  rules.  Thus  the  rules  for  construc- 
tion might  read  : 

i.  A  noun  used  in  the  relation  of  object  must  be  in  the 
nominative  case ; 

2.  A  noun  used  to  limit  another  noun  denoting  a  differ- 

ent person  or  thing  must  be  in  the  possessive  case  ; 

3.  Nouns  in  apposition  must  be  in  the  same  case ; 

4.  A  noun  used  in  any  other  relation  must  be  in  the 

nominative  case. 

(Exercises  in  Parsing,  &c,  in  the  Helps.) 


topics.  49 

PRONOUNS. 


SOME    KINDS    OF    PRONOUNS, 

(Exercises,  &c.,  in  the  Helps.) 

63.  The  pronouns  I,  thou,  and  he,  possess  a  prop- 
erty called  person  (see  paragraph  66).  They  are  on 
that  account  called  the  personal  pronouns. 

64.  In 

he  is  a  man  who  understands  his  business, 
the  pronoun  who,  while  subject  of  the  proposition, 
who  understands  his  business, 

also  serves  to  connect  that  proposition  with  the  propo- 
sition 

he  is  a  man, 
to  show  that  the  second  relates  to  man,  a  part  of  the 
first.     There  are  several   such  pronouns.     They  are 
called  conjunctive   pronouns  or   relative   pro- 
nouns. 

65.  The  pronoun  who  may  also  be  used  as  in 

w  h  o  is  here  ? 

viz.,  in  putting  a  question.  Who,  what,  which,  and 
whether,  when  so  used,  are  called  interrogative 
pronouns.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether  at  least  what 
and  which,  when  so  used,  should  not  be  called  adjec- 
tives, INTERROGATIVE  ADJECTIVES. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  pronouns,  whose  names  are  not  so 
commonly  used  as  the  preceding,  and  are  omitted  as  compara- 
tively unimportant. 
3 


50  TOPICS. 

The  Pronoun:  Properties. 


PROPERTIES    OF    PRONOUNS. 

66,  a. 

I  call,  thou  callest,  h  e  calls. 

I  is  used  to  distinguish  a  person  as  the  speaker;  thou, 
a  person  as  spoken  to  ;  he,  as  spoken  of.  Such  a 
form  as  either  I,  thou,  or  he,  is  a  person.  We  may, 
then,  state  that 

b.  Persons  are  forms  of  words  used  to  distin- 
guish a  person  (or  thing)  as  speaking,  or  as  spoken 
to,  or  as  spoken  of. 

Such  a  person  as  I  is  called  a  first  person*  ;  as 
thou,  a  second  person  ;  as  he,  a  third  person. 

C.  I,  thou,  and  he,  are  pronouns;  therefore, 
Pronouns  have  Persons. 

The  three  persons  mentioned  in  these  examples  are  not,  how- 
ever, forms  of  one  another.  Yet  each  is  probably  the  remnant 
of  a  set  of  forms  of  one  word.  If  this  is  not  true,  the  propriety 
cf  calling  these,  or  any  other  different  words,  persons,  may  be 
fairly  questioned. 

67,  a.  In 

if  thou  dost  not,  they  will, 

it  is  obvious  that  thou  and  they  are  numbers.  Thou  is 
a  pronoun.     So,  likewise,  is  they ;  therefore, 

b.  Pronouns  have  Numbers:    singular   and 

PLURAL. 


TOPICS.  51 

The  Pronoun :  Properties. 

68,  a-  He  and  she*  his  and  hers,  represent  the 
Genders  of  Pronouns:  masculine  and  femi- 
nine. 

b.  Whether  it  is  a  gender  or  not  depends  upon  whether 
it  distinguishes  an  object  in  regard  to  sex.  As  a  fact,  it  is 
seldom,  if  ever,  used  with  any  even  remote  purpose  of  sug- 
gesting the  idea  of  sex.  Those  who  believe  that  it  is  a 
gender  call  it  a  NEUTER  GENDER. 

€9,  a.  In  the  propositions, 
who  art  thou? 
thy  strength  is  manifest, 
I  love  thee,  old  England, 

thou,  thy,  and  thee,  are  forms  used  on  account  of  the 
respective  relations  of  the  pronoun  to  other  words. 
Such  forms  we  have  learned  to  call  cases.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  thou  is  a  nominative  case  and  thy  a  posses- 
sive case.  The  form  thee  is  here  used  in  the  objec- 
tive relation  (object  of  love),  and,  in  fact,  is  set  apart 
for  use  in  that  relation.  Any  such  form  is  an  objec- 
tive case  ;  therefore, 

b.  An  Objective  case  is  that  form  of  a  word 
which  is  set  apart  for  the  objective  relation. 

From  these  several  illustrations  it  will  appear  that 

c.  Pronouns  have  Cases :  nominative,  posses- 
sive, and  objective.  English  pronouns  have  no  other 
cases. 

d.  Let  it  not  be  inferred  that  every  pronoun  has  all  three 
cases.  For  example,  which  exists  in  only  the  simple  form, 
and  it,  its,  are  the  only  forms  of  the  pronoun  it. 


52  TOPICS. 

The  Pronoun :  Rules. 


70.  The  number  of  pronouns  is  comparatively 
small.  Yet,  on  account  of  the  frequency  of  the  use 
of  pronouns,  they  constitute  an  important  class.  Be- 
low is  a  list  of  the  forms  of  the  principal  pronouns. 


First 

Person.                         Second 

Person. 

SINGULAR.             PLURAL.              SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

I 

we                thou 

you,  ye 

Poss. 

my,  mine      our,  ours      thy,  thine 

your,  yours 

Obj. 

me 

us                 thee 

Third  Person. 

(you) 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Mas. 

Fern.             Neuter.(?) 

Nom. 

he 

she                it 

they 

Poss. 

his 

her,  hers      its 

their,  theirs 

Obj. 

him 

her(?)            (it) 

them 

The  pronoun  who  has  three  cases  :  nom.  who ;  poss. 
whose  ;  obj.  whom.  For  the  pronoun  it,  used,  imperson- 
ally, see  p.  32,  d.  Some  grammars  contain  full  lists  of  pro- 
nouns. The  interested  student  will  find  it  profitable  to 
examine  such  lists. 


RUL.ES  FOR  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  PRONOUNS. 

For  Pronoun  A3  Subject. 

71,  a. 

He  is  a  prince  among*  princes. 

He  is  a  pronoun  used  as  a  subject  and  is  in  the  nomi- 


topics.  53 

The  Pronoun:  Rules. 


native  case.  It  is  agreed  that  a  pronoun  so  used  shall 
be  in  the  nominative  case.     Rule  : 

b.  A  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition 
must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

For  Pronoun  as  Attribute. 

72,  a. 

It  is  I,  I  am  li  e ,  we  are  they. 
I,   he*   and  they,   are   pronouns   used  .  as   attributes. 
They  are  in  the  nominative  case.     It  is  agreed  that  a 
pronoun  so  used  shall  be  in  the  nominative  case. 
Rule  : 

b.  A  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposi- 
tion must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

For  Pronoun  as  Object. 

73»  a-  In  the  expressions, 

I  commend  him  to  you,  and 
the  fur  which  the  monarch  wears  warmed 
a  bear, 

Mm  and  which  are  pronouns  used  in  the  relation  of 
object.  Him  is  an  objective  case.  Which  is  a  nomina- 
tive case  and  is  used  rather  than  an  objective  case, 
presumably  because  an  objective  case  of  which  does 
not  exist.     It  is  agreed,  &c,  &c.     Rule  : 

b.  A  pronoun  used  in  the  relation  of  object  must 
be  in  the  objective  case  if  the  pronoun  has  such  a 
case  ;  otherwise,  in  the  nominative  case. 

This  rule  applies  to  the  object  of  a  Preposition,  the  ob- 
ject of  a  Participle,  and  the  object  of  an  Infinitive. 


54  topics. 

The  Pronoun :  Rules. 

For  the  Possessive. 

74.  The  rule  for  a  pronoun  used  to  limit  by  de- 
noting possession  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  for  a 
noun  similarly  used,  and  may  be  similarly  stated. 
(See  p.  47-) 

For  Pronoun  in  Apposition. 

75,  a.  In  the  expression, 

behold  the  king  here,  him  whom  all  men 
praise, 

him  is  a  pronoun  in  apposition  with  a  noun,  king.  We 
have  already  learned  that  words  in  apposition  hold 
essentially  the  same  relation  in  a  proposition.  It 
should  follow,  then,  that  a  pronoun  in  apposition 
with  a  noun  should  have  the  case  it  would  have  if 
used  in  the  position  of  the  noun,  i.  e.,  if  the  noun 
were  omitted  and  the  pronoun  substituted  for  it. 
This  principle  is  observed  in  the  construction  of  him, 
above  ;  for  if  we  omit  the  noun  king  we  shall  say, 

behold  him  here,  &c, 
him  being  the  case  prescribed  by  a  previous  rule  for 
a  pronoun  used  in  the  objective  relation.     Hence  the 
rule  : 

b.  A  pronoun  used  in  apposition  with  a  noun 
must  have  the  case  prescribed  to  it  for  the  relation 
in  which  the  noun  stands. 

C.  If  nouns  and  pronouns  had  the  same  number  of 
cases  and  the  cases  had  the  same  names,  the  rule  might 
stand:    A   pronoun   in   apposition   with   a  noun  or  with 


topics.  55 

The  Pronoun:  Rules. 

another  pronoun  must  be  in  the  same  case  with  that  noun 
or  pronoun. 

For  Pronoun  and  Antecedent. 

76,  a.  In 

beauty's  tears  are  loyelier  than  her  smile, 
beauty's  is  the  word  for  which  her  stands.     The  word 
for  which  a  pronoun  stands  is  the  antecedent  of 
the  pronoun. 

b.  In 

the  king  abdicated  his  throne, 
Doth  king  and  his  are  of  the  masculine  gender  and 
singular  number.  When  two  or  more  persons  hold 
the  same  opinion  we  say  they  agree  in  opinion.  In 
like  manner,  when  words  have  certain  common  prop- 
erties, we  may  say  the  words  agree  in  whatever  they 
have  in  common. 

The  his  already  mentioned  is  a  pronoun  and  king 
is  its  antecedent.  Because  they  have  in  common  the 
masculine  gender  and  singular  number  we  say  they 
agree  in  gender  and  number.     But  in 

he  was  a  king  who  loved  his  people, 
while  the  antecedent,  king,  is  a  masculine  gender  and 
singular  number,  the  pronoun  who  has  neither  gender 
nor  number,  and  therefore  cannot  agree  with  its  ante- 
cedent.   We  may,  then,  derive  the  rule  : 

C.  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in 
gender  and  number  whenever  both  have  gender  and 
number. 


56  TOPICS. 

ADJECTIVES. 


SOME    KINDS    OF    ADJECTIVES, 

[Exercises,  &c,  in  the  Helps.] 

77,  Some  adjectives,  like 

three,  fourth,  one,  first, 

convey   an   idea   of    number.     Such   adjectives   are 

Called  NUMERAL    ADJECTIVES,  Or  NUMERALS. 

78.  The  terms  interrogative  adjectives,  pro- 
nominal   ADJECTIVES,    and   COMPOUND      ADJECTIVES 

will  explain  themselves. 


PROPERTIES    OF    ADJECTIVES. 

79?  a-  In  the  expressions, 

we  thought  you  honest, 
we  thought  h  i  m  honest* 
we  thought  the  111  honest, 
we  thought  her  honest, 

the  adjective  honest  is  constructed  with  words,  you, 
him,  them,  her,  differing,  in  the  several  examples,  in 
person,  number,  gender,  and  case.  But  the  form  of 
honest  remains  the  same  throughout.  As  a  rule,  ad- 
jectives undergo  no  change  of  form  when  used  in  these 
several  ways.     We  may  affirm,  then,  that 

b.  Adjectives   have    neither    Persons,  Num- 
bers, Genders,  nor  Cases. 


topics.  57 

The  Adjective :   Comparison. 

C-  There  are  two  exceptions  :  this,  which  has  a  plural, 
these  ;  and  that,  plural  those. 

COMPARISON. 

80.  If  we  say  of  several  acts  that  one  is  noble, 
another  nobler,  and  a  third  noblest,  we  imply  that  the 
quality  of  acts  may  differ  in  degree.  And  we  use 
the  forms  noble,  nobler,  noblest,  to  express  such  differ- 
ent degrees  of  that  particular  quality.  In  a  similar 
way  we  may  employ  the  forms  brave,  braver,  bravest. 
We  have  not  a  good  name  for  such  forms.  But  be- 
cause by  employing  them  we  imply  a  comparison  of 
the  degrees  of  a  quality,  we  may  call  them  forms  of 
comparison. 

81.  To  distinguish  the  first  of  the  forms,  noble, 
nobler,  noblest,  from  the  others,  we  might  properly 
call  it  the  simple  form,  but  the  name  positive  form 
is  more  commonly  given  it.  The  second  is  equivalent 
to  more  noble,  a  phrase  made  by  combining  the  word 
more  with  the  simple  form  of  the  adjective.  Such  a 
form  is  called  a  comparative  form.  The  third  is 
equivalent  to  most  noble,  which  combines  the  word 
most  with  the  simple  form.     Such  a  form  is  called  a 

SUPERLATIVE   FORM. 

82.  a-  Noble  and  brave  (above)  are  adjectives ; 
therefore, 

Adjectives  have  Forms  of  Comparison :  sim- 
ple or  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative. 
3* 


58  TOPICS. 

The  Adjective :  Comparison. 

b.  If  one  writes  or  pronounces  in  succession  the 
positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative  forms 
of  an  adjective,  he  is  said  to  compare  the  adjective. 

83,  From  the  examples, 

tall,  taller,  tallest, 
young,  younger,  youngest, 

it  appears  that  the  comparative  form  of  an  adjective  may- 
be made  by  adding  er  to  the  positive ;  and  the  superlative 
by  adding  est  to  the  positive.  This  is  the  usual  or  regu- 
lar way  of  forming  comparatives  and  superlatives.  Other 
ways  may  be  learned  by  observation. 

84,  a. 

Brilliant  light, 
more  brilliant  light, 
most  brilliant  light. 

The  adjective  brilliant  expresses  a  quality.  But  it  is  not 
here,  nor  is  it  ever  varied  in  form  to  express  different  de- 
grees of  the  quality.  The  same  is  true  of  many  other  ad- 
jectives ;  i.  e.,  some  adjectives  are  not  compared. 

b.  Many  adjectives  are  both  compared  and  combined 
with  more  and  most  to  form  phrases  cf  comparison. 

85,  The  words  less  and  least  are  also  often  used  with 
the  simple  form  of  adjectives  to  form,  in  a  certain  negative 
sense,  phrases  of  comparison. 


topics.  59 

VERBS. 


SOME    KINDS    OF    VERBS. 

86.  The  terms  transitive  and  intransitive,  as 
applied  to  verbs,  and  also  the  term  compound,  have 
been  explained.     (See  pp.  22,  23,  28.) 


PROPERTIES    OF    VERBS. 

(Exercises,  &c.,  in  the  Helps.) 

87,  a. 

I  am ,  thou  art,  he  is. 
The  forms  am,  art,  and  is,  lead  us  to  think  of  the 
speaker,  the  person  spoken  to,  and  the  person  spoken 
of.     Such  forms  we  have  learned  to  call  persons. 
(See  definition,  p.  50.) 

b.  In 

thou  lovest,  he  lores, 
lovest  and  loves  are  likewise  persons.     These  several 
words  are  verbs  ;  therefore, 

Verbs  have  Persons. 
88. 

Am,  are,  loveth,  was,  walkest,  were, 

as  verbs,  illustrate  the  fact  that 
Verbs  have  Numbers. 


60  TOPICS. 

The  Verb :  Tenses. 


89,  a.  Comparing    write    with    wrote,    and 
with  slept,  as  they  occur  in 

I  write,         I  wrote, 
they  sleep,    they  slept, 

we  observe  that  write  affirms  an  act  as  taking  place 
at  the  present  time,  and  sleep  affirms  a  condition  as  a 
present  one  ;  while  the  time  of  that  affirmed  by  wrote 
and  slept  is  past  time.  Write  and  wrote,  then,  and 
sleep  and  slept  riiay  be  described  as  forms  which  dis- 
tinguish the  time  of  that  expressed  by  them.  Such 
forms  are  tenses.  These  words  are  verbs  ;  there- 
fore, 

b.  Verbs  have  Tenses:  present  and  past. 
English  verbs  have  only  these  two  tenses  :  present 
tense  and  past  tense,  terms  which  explain  them- 
selves. 


FORMATION    OF    THE    PAST    TENSE. 

90,  a.  In 

I  laugh,  I  laughed, 
laugh  is  a  present  tense  ;  laughed,  a  past  tense.  The 
latter  is  formed  from  the  present  tense  by  adding  the 
letters  ed.  Past  tenses  made  by  adding  ed  to  the 
present  tense  form  are  said  to  be  regularly  formed. 
Verbs  whose  past  tense  is  thus  formed  are  called 
regular  verbs.     Other  verbs  are  irregular. 

For  lists  of  irregular  verbs  see  p.  123. 


TOPICS.  6 1 

The  Verb :   Agreement. 

"b.   Comparing 

I  recite,  and  I  recited, 

recited,  a  past  tense,  would  seem  to  be  formed  from  the  present 
tense  by  adding  only  d.  But  this  is  not  true  historically.  The 
td  of  recited  is  strictly  the  termination  added  to  form  the  past 
tense,  the  e  of  recite  being  dropped,  or  omitted,  in  accordance 
with  a  familiar  rule  of  orthography.  The  change  may  be  repre- 
sented by  recit\z\ed.  The  same  rule  is  observed  in  the  formation 
of  salable  from  sale. 

Agreement. 

91,  a.  In  the  expressions, 

I  am,  thou  art,  he  is,  thou  lovest,  he  lores, 

the  several  verbs  agree  with  their  subject  in  person 
and  number.     In 

we  are,  they  are, 
there  is  agreement  in  number  only,  are  having  no  per^ 
son.     In 

I  read,  they  read, 

there  is  no  agreement  in  either  person  or  number,  be- 
cause read  is  neither  a  person  nor  a  number.  The 
following,  then,  may  be  stated  for  a  rule  : 

b.  A  verb  and  its  subject  must  agree  in  person 
and  number  when  both  have  the  requisite  person  and 
number. 

92,  a..  Verbs  seldom  have  the  requisite  person  and 
number.  The  verb  commonly  called  to  be  has  more  person 
and  number  forms  than  any  other  English  verb.  The 
"  forms  "  of  this  verb  as  used  with  the  various  forms  of  the 
pronouns  are  : 


62  TOPICS. 

The  Verb :  Agreement. 


Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

ist  P. 

I  am, 

we  are, 

2d  P. 

thou  art, 

you  are, 

3d  P. 

he  is, 

Past  Tense. 

they  are. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1st  P. 

I  was, 

we  were, 

2d  P. 

thou  wast, 

you  were, 

3d  P. 

he  was, 

they  were. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  verb  has  the  requisite  forms  in 
both  tenses  for  agreement  in  both  numbers  (no  other  verb 
has).  For  agreement  in  all  three  persons  it  has  the  requi- 
site forms  in  only  the  singular  of  the  present  tense,  having 
only  one  person  in  the  singular  of  the  past  tense,  and  none 
in  the  plural  of  either  tense. 

b.  Let  the  verb  more  illustrate  the  facts  concerning 
other  verbs : 


Present  Tense. 

singular.  plural. 

I  move,  we  move, 

thou  movest,  you  move, 

he  moves  (moveth),  they  move. 

Past  Tense. 

singular.  plural. 

I  moved,  we  moved, 

thou  movedst,  you  moved, 

he  moved,  they  moved. 

The  present  tense  has  no  persons  in  the  "  plural,"  and  only 
the  second  and  the  third  persons  in  the  singular;  and  it  has 
no  singular  number  for  the  first  person  and  no  plural  num- 
ber for  either  of  the  persons.  Even  less  is  to  be  said  for 
the  past  tense.  * 


ist  P. 
2d  P. 
3d  P. 


1st  P. 
2d  P. 
3d  P. 


TOPICS.  63 

The  Verb:  Phrases. 

93,  a.  II  instead  of  he  in  he  mores  (above)  we  were 
to  use  John,  saying  John  moves,  we  should  have  a  verb  in 
the  present  tense  used  with  a  singular  noun.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  verb  is  put  in  the  singular  number  (according 
to  the  rule),  and  also  in  the  third  person,  though  John,  like 
all  other  nouns,  has  no  person  : 

b.  Whenever  a  verb  in  the  present  tense  is  used 
with  a  noun  that  is  singular  in  form  (or  in  sense),  the 
third  person,  singular,  of  the  verb  must  be  used. 


SO  IH 12     VERB    PHRASES. 

(For  Discussion  of  Verb  Phrases  see  Helps,  p.  117.) 

94.  When  we  say, 

I  shall  write, 

you  will  write, 

I  am  going  to  write, 

I  am   on   the  point  of  writing, 

the  phrases  shall  write,  will  write,  am  going  to  write, 
am  on  the  point  of  writing,  are  used  to  represent  the 
act  of  writing  as  to  take  place  in  future  time.  There 
are  no  forms  of  English  verbs  thus  representing  an 
act.  If  such  forms  existed  they  would  probably.be 
called  future  tenses.  The  above  phrases,  equiva- 
lent to  future  tenses,  may  be  called  future-tense 
phrases. 


64  topics. 

The  Verb :  Phrases. 

95,  a. 

Ihare  wri  tten, 

thou  hast  written, 

he  has  written. 

Hare  written,  hast  written,  has  written,  represent  the 
act  of  writing  as  completed  at  the  present  time.  These 
phrases  are  combinations  of  the  verb-forms  hare, 
hast,  has,  with  the  perfect  participle  of  write,  the  verb 
expressing  the  action.  (See  p.  68,  b.)  Any  phrase 
similarly  composed  is  called  a  present-perfect- 
tense    PHRASE. 

b.  It  is  agreed  that  if  we  wish  to  represent  an  action  or 
state  as  finished  or  perfected  at  the  present  time,  we  shall 
do  it  by  combining  have,  or  hast,  or  has,  with  the  perfect 
participle  of  the  verb  which  expresses  the  act  or  state. 

Some  exceptions  to  this  rule  will  be  observed  by  the  student, 
and  some  exceptions  to  following  rules  also. 

96. 

We  had  gone  when  the  message  arrived, 
thou  hadst  gone  when  the  message  arrived. 

The  phrases  had  gone  and  hadst  gone  represent  an 
action  as  completed  or  perfected  at  or  before  a  specified 
past  time.  These  examples  teach  us  that  to  repre- 
sent an  action  or  state  as  completed  at  or  before  some 
specified  time  in  the  past,  we  may  use  a  phrase  com- 
bining had  or  hadst  with  the  perfect  participle  of  the 
verb  expressing  the  action  or  state.  Such  phrases 
may  be  called  past-perfect-tense  phrases.  Some 
call  them  pluperfect-tense  phrases. 


TOPICS.  65 

The  Verb  :  Phrases. 

97. 

I  shall  hare  seen  him  ere  to-morrow, 
they  will  have  seen  us  ere  to-morrow. 

The  phrases  shall  have  seen  and  will  have  seen  repre- 
sent an  action  as  to  be  completed  at  or  before  some 
specified  future  time.  They  teach  us  that  in  order  to 
represent  an  action  or  state  as  to  be  completed  at  or 
before  some  specified  future  time,  we  may  use  a 
phrase  made  by  combining  the  phrase  will  hare  or 
shall  have  with  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  ex- 
pressing  the    action    or    state.     Such    phrases    are 

FUTURE-PERFECT-TENSE    PHRASES. 

Remark. — Verbs,    participles,    and    infinitives    combine    in 
many  ways  to  form  verb-phrases  of  various  kinds.     (See  p.  117.) 

98.  English  verbs  do  not  at   present  have  either 
moods  or  VOICES. 


66  topics. 


ADVERBS. 


SOITIE     KINDS. 

99.  Little  need  be  said  concerning  adverbs.  Adverbs 
may  be  conjunctive  or  relative  (see  p.  26,  c),  and 
compound.  There  are  other  kinds  of  adverbs,  but  less 
important. 


COMPARISON. 

100,  a.  In 

I  read  often,     ;, 

you  read  oftener, 

he  reads  oftenest, 

it  is  obvious  that  often,  an  adverb,  is  compared.     So 
with  soon,  compared  soon,  sooner,  soonest.     Hence, 

Adverbs  may  be  Compared.  And,  like  adjec- 
tives, they  may  combine  with  more  and  most  to  form 
phrases  of  comparison. 

b.  Some  adverbs  are  irregularly  compared.     (See  p.  125.) 

Remark. — The  "rule"  for  the  use  of  adverbs  is  purposely 
omitted.  Likewise  the  "rule"  for  prepositions,  and  that  for 
conjunctions.  Some  reasons  for  these  omissions  will  be  found 
stated  in  the  Helps,  p.  113. 


TOPICS.  67 

CONJUNCTIONS. 


SOME    KINDS 

101;  el.  We  have  learned  that  some  propositions  are 
independent,  and  that  others  are  dependent  or  subor- 
dinate (pp.  29,  30).  Comparing  independent  propositions 
with  one  another,  they  may  be  said  to  be  of  an  equal  order. 
But  a  dependent  proposition  is  in  order  or  rank  subordinate 
to  the  principal  proposition  that  it  limits. 

b.  Conjunctions  used  to  connect  independent 
propositions  or  propositions  of  an  equal  order  or 
rank,  are  called  co-ordinating  conjunctions. 
Those  connecting  dependent  clauses  with  principal 
are  called  subordinating  conjunctions. 

102.  The  term  conjunctive  adverb  was  explained 
in  paragraph  d,  p.  26.  The  student  is  cautioned  against 
confounding  conjunctions  with  conjunctive  adverbs.  He 
will  avoid  the  difficulty  by  carefully  comparing  and  apply- 
ing the  two  definitions. 

103.  The  necessity  of  supplying  understood  parts  of  propo-  ' 
sitions  is  more  frequent  in  explaining  the  uses  of  conjunctions, 
perhaps,  than  in  connection  with  any  other  kind  of  words  ex- 
cepting conjunctive  adverbs.     (See  pp.  23  and  26.) 


68  topics. 

PARTICIPLES. 


PROPERTIES    OF    PARTICIPLES. 

(Exercises,  &c,  in  the  Helps.) 

104,  a.  When  we  say, 

the  liquid  is  fermenting,  and 
the  liquid  has  fermented, 

we  use  the  form  fermenting  to  represent  the  process 
of  fermentation  as  still  going  on  or  as  not  perfected 
at  the  time  indicated  by  the  verb.  The  form 
fermented  is  used  to  represent  the  process  as  completed 
or  to  a  certain  degree  perfected  at  the  time  indicated 
by  the  verb.  Fermenting  and  fermented  are  partici- 
ples ;  therefore, 

b.  Participles  have  Forms  which  represent 
that  which  they  express  to  be  either  unperfected  or 
perfected.  Such  a  form  as  the  first  we  will  call  an 
imperfect  participle,  often  called  the  present 
participle,  or  participle  in  -ing.  Such  a  form  as 
the  second  is  called  a  perfect  participle. 

105.  In  describing  a  participle  it  is  customary  to 
refer  it  to  the  verb  from  which  it  is  derived.  Thus 
fermenting  would  be  called  the  imperfect  partici- 
ple, and  fermented  the  perfect  participle  of  the 
verb  ferment, — the  word  of  being  used  in  a  similar, 
but  not  identical,  way  with  of  in 

the  son  o  f  Zebedee. 


TOPICS.  69 

The  Participle. 

106.  It  is  obvious  that  the  participle  in  -ing  is  formed 
by  adding  ing  to  the  simple  form  of  the  present  tense  of 
the  verb  from  which  it  is  derived. 


FORMATION    OF    PERFECT    PARTICIPLES. 

107. 

I  have  recited, 

I  have  laughed, 

I  have  driven, 

I  have  hidden. 

The  perfect  participles  in  these  examples  are  derived 
respectively  from  recite,  laugh,  drive,  and  hide.  They 
are  severally  formed  by  adding  ed  or  en  to  the  simple 
form  of  the  present  tense  of  the  verb,  and  making  the 
regular  changes  prescribed  by  the  rules  of  orthogra- 
phy (p.  61).  Perfect  participles  so  formed  are  reg- 
ular perfect  participles.  Others  are  irregular. 
Been  is  a  notable  exception  to  the  rule  just  illustrated. 

108,  a..  It  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  simple  form  of 
the  present  tense  of  a  verb,  the  simple  form  of  the  past 
tense,  the  imperfect  participle,  and  the  perfect  participle,  as 
the  principal  parts  of  the  verb.     Thus 

write,  wrote,  writing,  written, 
are  called  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb  write. 

D.  But  a  participle  belongs  to  a  different  class  of  words  from 
verbs.     Therefore  a  participle  is  not  strictly  a  part  of  a  verb. 


yo  topics. 

INFINITIVES. 


CHARACTERISTICS, 

(Exercises,  &c,  in  the  Helps.) 

109. 

I  see  with  the  naked  eye  but  you  eannot 
see  without  glasses. 

It  will  appear  that  the  infinitive  see  is  in  form  exactly 
like  the  root  of  the  verb  see.  Such  an  infinitive  is 
called  a  root  infinitive,  or  simply  an  infinitive. 

no. 

He  is  fond  of  walking. 

The  infinitive  walking  is  formed  from  the  verb  walk 
by  adding  ing  to  the  simple  root  form  of  the  verb. 
Such  an  infinitive  is  called  an  infinitive  in  -ing. 

HI,  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  infinitives,  like  partici- 
ples, are  of  two  kinds. 

For  remarks  on  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  %  see  p.  96. 


HELPS. 


REMARK. 

The  preceding  Topics  contain  only  so  much 
of  explanation  and  illustration  as  the  editor 
deems  necessary  to  make  them  clear  to  the 
average  mind.  The  Helps  contain  hints  to 
the  teacher  concerning  methods  ;  explana- 
tions that  it  was  not  thought  advisable  to  in- 
troduce into  the  Topics;  additional  illustra- 
tions for  students  who  need  further  help  ;  and 
examples  and  lists  for  reference.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  plan,  the  Topics  may  be  used 
as  a  text-book;  the  Helps  should  be  used 
only  as  a  book  of  reference. 

Every  paragraph  in  the  Helps  which  re- 
fers to  a  paragraph  in  the  Topics  is  num- 
bered with  the  number  of  the  paragraph  to 
which  it  refers.  Those  marked  IT  do  not 
refer  to  other  paragraphs. 


HELPS 


GENERAL     SUGGESTIONS. 


TO    THE    TEACHER. 

T"  I.  It  should  be  strongly  impressed  upon  the 
minds  of  all  that  to  study  grammar  successfully  we 
must  study  the  language  itself.  Neither  the  teacher 
nor  the  text-book  should  serve  as  more  than  a  guide. 
We  must  cultivate  the  habit  of  observing  the  facts  of 
language  as  displayed  in  the  utterances  of  approved 
writers  and  correct  speakers.  We  must  acquire 
facility  in  thinking,  each  for  himself. 

1F  II.  In  accordance  with  the  most  approved  theories,  the 
sensible  teacher  of  botany  encourages  her  pupils  to  go 
abroad  to  seek  for  themselves  specimens  for  study.  A 
similar  course  is  equally  incumbent  upon  the  teacher  of 
grammar.  And  the  text-book  of  grammar  should  contain 
only  the  few  illustrations  necessary  to  guide  the  pupil  to 
the  broader  field.  It  should  be  understood,  then,  that  the 
illustrations  inserted  in  the  Helps  are  few  because  they  are 
intended  to  be  only  helps  to  something  more,  not  final  sub- 
jects for  the  pupil's  study. 

4  [73] 


74  HELPS. 

To  the  Teacher. 

1  III.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  because  a  pupil  has 
mastered  a  grammar,  he  will  therefore  have  become  a  cor- 
rect speaker.  We  have  said  that  a  person  becomes  a  cor- 
rect speaker  through  habit.  A  knowledge  of  grammar 
aids  one  in  preserving  the  habit ;  but  the  study  of  technical 
grammar  helps  but  very  little  in  acquiring  it.  The  habit  is 
to  be  acquired  chiefly  through  imitation. 

The  teacher's  part  is  to  use  language  worthy  of  the 
pupil's  imitation,  to  lead  the  pupil  to  observe  and  avoid  the 
errors  made  by  others,  and  to  require  him  to  correct  his 
own.  Special  exercises  should  be  devoted  to  such  instruc- 
tion at  proper  times.  But  it  is  far  more  important  that  this 
instruction  should  accompany  that  given  in  every  subject, 
and  from  the  very  first.  Indeed,  from  the  time  the  child 
begins  to  talk,  every  occasion  for  using  language  of  his 
own  should  be  made  an  occasion  for  forming  the  habit  of 
using  correct  language. 

IF  IV.  Recitations  and  Study.  Prepare  yourself  thor- 
oughly for  each  recitation.  It  is  not  enough  merely  to 
"know  the  lesson.''  Thorough  preparation  implies  much 
thought ;  and  implies  readiness  in  asking  questions  to  test 
the  pupil's  knowledge. 

Recitations  in  grammar  are  recitations  on  language  ; 
therefore  keep  the  language  clearly  before  the  pupil.  To  do 
this,  the  example  recited  upon  should  be  written  on  the 
board  by  the  pupil  himself,  and  the  words  to  be  studied 
should  be  underlined. 

At  first,  for  one  lesson  assign  only  one  topic.  Require 
the  pupil  to  read  the  topic  carefully,  again  and  again,  until 
he  understands  it. 


HELPS.  75 

To  the  Teacher, 

Require  him  to  furnish  for  his  recitation  new  examples 
illustrating  the  fact  to  be  presented.  Have  him  show  by 
reciting  upon  his  new  examples  whether  he  understands 
the  principle  they  illustrate.     Ask  questions. 

When  the  pupil  shows  himself  familiar  with  the  exam- 
ples found  in  the  book  require  him  to  select  illustrations 
from  the  writings  of  approved  authors. 

Then  let  him  have  much  practice  in  composing  original 
examples. 

He  thus  learns  principles  through  applying  them. 

Do  not  hope  that  familiarity  with  a  principle  is  to  be 
acquired  through  "learning  by  rote."  The  final  test  of  a 
pupil's  acquaintance  with  a  principle  is  not  the  glibness 
with  which  he  can  repeat  the  words  in  the  book,  but  the 
readiness  and  the  accuracy  with  which  he  can  apply  the 
principle,  as  shown  by  his  facility  in  selecting  and  origin- 
ating and  explaining  illustrations. 

The  pupil  should  give  reasons  for  every  conclusion  he 
states.  This  is  imperative.  And  his  statement  of  rea- 
sons ought  invariably  to  precede  the  statement  of  his  con- 
I  elusion.  For  example,  he  should  not  say,  speaking  of  a 
given  word,  it  is  a  subject  because  it  represents  that  of 
which  something  is  said.  But  he  should  say,  it  represents 
that  of  which  something  is  said,  and  therefore  it  is  a  sub- 
ject. This  practice  of  stating  reasons  in  advance  cannot 
be  too  strongly  insisted  upon. 

As  a  rule,  the  course  we  have  indicated  should  be  pur- 
sued with  each  topic  separately.  In  reviewing  a  chapter,  be 
careful  not  only  to  have  the  pupil  understand  each  separate 


76  HELPS. 

To  the  Teacher. 

topic,  but  also  to  have  him  perceive  the  relation  of  the 
several  topics  to  one  another  and  to  the  whole  subject 
treated  in  the  chapter.  After  reviewing  a  chapter  the  pupil 
should  be  able  to  state  the  plan  of  it. 

On  no  account  proceed  to  a  new  topic  until  the  pupil 
thoroughly  understands  the  topics  already  studied. 

Pupils  who  are  not  intelligent  enough  to  pursue  such  a 
course  should  not  study  grammar,  no  matter  what  their 
age  may  be. 


HELPS.  77 


ON     THE 

DEFINITION     OF     GRAMMAR. 

Remark.— The  study  of  the  TOPICS  should  begin  with 
the  first  chapter.  Indeed,  the  student  should  not  attempt 
any  chapter  until  he  has  become  familiar  with  the  topics 
which  precede. 

1-2.  In  studying  language  we  may  gain  a  knowledge  of  the 
derivation  and  history  of  words  and  roots  of  words.  Such 
knowledge  is  Etymology.  Or  we  may  acquire  a  knowledge  of 
the  formation  of  letters  and  the  spelling  of  words,  a  knowledge 
sometimes  called  Orthography.  Or  we  may  learn  the  pronunci- 
ation of  words  and  so  know  Orthoepy.  We  may,  in  studying 
language,  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  right  use  of  language,  by 
some  called  Rhetoric.  Or  we  may  study  language  with  still 
other  objects  in  view,  and  thus  acquire  knowledge  of  other 
branches  of  the  subject.  If  we  would  make  a  scientific  study 
of  any  one  branch  of  the  science  of  language,  we  shall  need  to 
guard  against  encroaching  upon  any  other  branch.  One  con- 
venient way  to  avoid  trespassing  upon  foreign  province  in  study- 
ing a  given  science  is  to  have  the  ground  we  wish  to  cover 
clearly  marked  out  and  its  extent  limited.  In  other  words,  we 
should  define  our  subject.  It  is  with  this  object  that  we  begin 
our  study  by  defining  grammar. 

1,  e.  In  defining  grammar  the  term  relations  is  used  in 
the  technical  sense.  The  technical  terms  used  in  this  book 
should  be  interpreted  technically. 

2,  g.  This  definition  of  grammar  is  not  the  definition 
commonly  given.    Yet  it  will  be  found  to  be  serviceable 


78  HELPS. 

The  Subject :  Exercises. 

and  not  inaccurate.  According  to  this  definition,  the  ob- 
ject of  studying  grammar  is  to  acquire  a  classified  knowl- 
edge of  the  relations  of  words  and  of  the  forms  words  take 
in  their  various  relations.  This  implies,  of  course,  a 
knowledge  of  correct  expression,  and,  in  fact,  of  many 
other  things. 


THE    SUBJECT. 

(See  Topics,  p.  14.) 

3  a.  Many  persons  make  the  mistake  of  saying  that  the 
subject,  in  grammar,  is  "  that  of  which  something  is  said." 
That  of  which  something  is  said  is  always  an  object  of 
thought,  and  must  be  distinguished  from  the  word  which 
represents "an  object  of  thought. 

(The  paragraphs  marked  \  do  not  refer  to  particular  Topics.) 

•f  This  distinction  between  words  and  the  objects 
words  represent  must  be  kept  in  mind,  not  only  in 
this  connection,  but  throughout  the  study  of  gram- 
mar. 

3,  c.  The  term  complement  is  a  convenient  one  to 
apply  to  the  word  or  words  which,  together  with  the  bare 
subject,  make  up  the  complete  subject.  The  same  word, 
complement,  is  used  to  name  corresponding  parts  of  predi- 
cates and  attributes. 


HELPS.  79 

The  Subject :  Exercises. 

Exercises. 

IT  The  editor  wishes  to  repeat  that  in  inserting  a  few  ex- 
amples under  this  topic  and  following  topics,  his  object  is  to 
furnish  helps.  But  the  pupil's  study  must  not  cease  here. 
With  the  experience  acquired  in  studying  the  examples 
found  in  the  book,  he  will  be  able  to  look  outside  for  fur- 
ther illustrations. 


Examples  of  the  Subject. 

(Exercises  on  succeeding  pages  contain  many  examples  of  the  Subject.) 

%  At  first  point  out  both  the  complete  and  the  bare 
subject.  But  after  a  time  it  will  be  found  more  con- 
venient, in  using  the  term  subject,  to  designate  the 
bare  subject. 

1.  Ehns  grew  on  the  lawn. 

2.  Stately  elms  grew  on  the  lawn. 

3.  Tall,  stately  ehns  grew  on  the  lawn. 

4.  Many  tall,  stately  elms  grew  on  the  lawn. 

5.  Many  tall,  stately  elms,  graceful  in  outline  and  sym- 

metrical inform,  grew  on  the  lawn. 

6.  Contributions  to  relieve  the  sufferers  were  sent  in. 

7.  In  yonder  cot,  the  village  maiden  kept  her  school. 

8.  The  wind  rushes  by,  its  howl  is  unheard. 

9.  Nevertheless,  strange  stories  got  abroad. 

10.  Early  the  next  morning  the  battle  was  begun. 

11.  How  wonderfully  are  we  made  ! 

12.  To  relieve  the  poor  is  our  duty. 

13.  How  the  soul  is  connected  with  the  body  is  a  mys- 

tery. 


80  HELPS. 

The  Subject :  Recitation. 

Examples  of  a  Recitation. 

f  This  and  following  examples  of  recitations  are  given 
merely  by  way  of  suggestion.  There  are  many  ways  of 
conducting  recitations  from  which  the  teacher  will,  of 
course,  select  those  most  suited  to  her  class  in  the  different 
stages  of  the  pupils'  progress.  The  recitations  should  be 
quite  complete  at  first,  but  later,  may  be  much  abbreviated. 

Extended  Form. 

The  y  e  s  s  e  1  was  flying  before  the  wind. 

I.  Something  is  said  by  this  expression  concerning 
a  vessel  :  the  word  vessel  represents  the  object  vessel, 
and  therefore  represents  that  of  which  something  is 
said.  This  word  may  be  described,  then,  as  a  part 
of  the  expression  which  represents  that  of  which  some- 
thing is  said.  According  to  our  definition,  such  a 
part  of  an  expression  is  the  subject  of  the  expression. 
The  word  vessel  is  therefore  a  subject. 

It  is  not  of  vessel,  merely,  that  something  is  said, 
but  of  the  vessel.  We  have  learned  that  we  may  call 
the  several  words  which  together  form  a  subject,  a 
complete  subject.  The  vessel,  therefore,  is  the  complete 
subject  of  the  above  expression,  and  vessel,  the  bare 
subject. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  object  of  the  recitation  is  to  classify 
a  certain  part  of  the  expression.  The  italicized  words  illustrate 
a  way  of  applying  a  definition  in  such  a  case. 


HELPS.  8 1 

The  Subject :    Predicate. 

Abbreviated  Form. 
II.  Of  this  expression  (above),  the  word  vessel  is  a 
part  which  represents  that  of  which  something  is 
said.  Such  a  part  of  an  expression  is  the  subject, 
according  to  the  definition  :  The  subject  of  an  ex- 
pression is  that  part,  &c,  &c.  Vessel,  the  bare  sub- 
ject, and  the  together  form  a  complete  subject. 


the  predicate:. 

(See  Topics,  p.  15.) 

Examples  of  the  Predicate* 

<The  Exercises  on  the  Subject  contain  examples  of  the  Predicate.) 

1.  Time  flies. 

2.  Time  is  flying, 

3.  Time  is  swiftly  flying. 

4.  Time  never  ceased  to  fly. 

5.  Flowers  are  peeping  out  everywhere. 

6.  In  the  evening  they  went  to  the  concert  together, 

7.  The  duty  of  government  is  to  protect  persons  and 

property. 

8.  You  have  heard  if  I  fought  bravely. 

9.  There  the  wicked  cease  from  troubling. 

10.  They  made  him  laugh. 

1 1 .  His  misfortune  was  to  be  born  rich. 

12.  Having  been  a  benefactor  to   his  race,   this   nobly 

generous  man  died. 

13.  What  is  your  reason  for  doing  that? 

14.  When  does  he  propose  to  leave  town  ? 

15.  Boys,  come  in  out  of  the  rain. 

4* 


82  HELPS. 

Attribute:  Copula. 


ATTRIBUTE :    COPULA. 

(See  Topics,  p.  16.) 

5,  b.  When  the  attribute  is  a  noun,  as  in 
that  metal  is  gold, 

it  may  not  at  first  appear  to  indicate  either  a  condi- 
tion or  a  quality.  However,  a  noun  names  a  set  of 
qualities  or  conditions,  and  so  may  fairly  become  an 
attribute. 


Examples . 

1.  The  work  is  finished. 

2.  His  efforts  were  well  rewarded. 

3.  To  be  polite  is  to  be  kind  in  a  courteous  manner, 

4.  He  had  grown  to  be  quite  eloquent. 

5.  Man  is  mortal. 

6.  The  plant  will  become  stunted. 

7.  The  sun  seems  to  be  rising. 

8.  The  moon  will  soon  have  been  obscured  one  hour. 

9.  The  air  grows  damp  and  feels  chilly. 

10.  He  is  every  inch  a  man. 

11.  Sweel  are  the  uses  of  adversity. 

12.  Your  spirits  are  too  bold  for  your  years. 

13.  Your  brother  is  but  young  and  tender. 

14.  My  master  is  a  man  of  churlish  disposition. 

1 5.  The  merchant  might  have  become  rich. 


HELPS.  *  83 

Proposition :  Exercise. 

Example  of  a  Recitation. 
The  patient  will  soon  have  become  strong. 

a.  Of  this  expression,  the  word  patient  is  the  sub- 
ject :  will  soon  haye  .become  strong  is  the  predicate. 
The  word  strong  is  a  part  of  the  predicate,  and  indi- 
cates a  condition  of  that  represented  by  the  subject. 
It  is  therefore  an  attribute,  according  to  the  defini- 
tion :  The  attribute  of  an  expression  is  that  part  of 
the  predicate  which  is  used  to  indicate  a  condition  or 
a  quality  of  that  represented  by  the  subject. 

b.  The  attribute  of  the  expression  is  connected 
with  the  subject  by  will  soon  have  become,  which  is  a 
part  of  the  predicate;  therefore,  will  soon  haye  become 

is  a  copula,  according  to  the  definition  :  The  copula 
of  an  expression  is  that  part  of  the  predicate  which 
is  used  to  connect  the  subject  and  the  attribute. 

The  words  composing  the  copula  are  so  closely  combined 
that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  separate  them,  and  say  of  any 
one,  that  it  can  be  used  alone  as  the  copula  of  the  expres- 
sion. So  that  the  distinction  of  complete  and  bare  predi- 
cate is  not  to  be  made. 


THE    PROPOSITION. 

(See  Topics,  p.  17.) 

Exercise  on  the  Proposition. 

IT  I.  Point  out  the  subjects,  predicates,  attributes,  copulas, 
and  propositions.     Bear  in  mind  that  a  proposition  must 


84  HELPS. 

Proposition :   Exercise. 

combine  both  a  subject  and  a  predicate.     Reasons  before 
conclusions. 

"  A  boy's  first  night  at  school  is  usually  not  a  time 
of  mirth.  The  heart  of  the  solitary  little  lad  at 
Corston  sank  within  him.  A  melancholy  hung  about 
the  decayed  mansion.  It  had  once  known  better 
days.  The  broken  gateways,  the  summer-houses 
fallen  in  ruins,  the  grass-grown  court,  the  bleakness 
of  the  schoolroom,  depressed  the  spirits.  Southey's 
pillow  was  wet  with  tears  before  he  fell  asleep.  The 
master  of  the  school  was  at  one  with  his  surround- 
ings ;  he,  too,  was  a  piece  of  worthy  old  humanity  now 
decayed;  he,  too,  was  falling  in  untimely  ruins.  The 
work  of  the  school  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  son, 
Charley  Flower.  Both  father  and  son  knew  the  mys- 
tery of  the  flamboyant  penmanship,  but  Southey's 
handwriting  had  not  yet  advanced  to  the  decorative 
style.  His  spelling  he  could  look  back  upon  with 
pride." 

IF  II.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  division  of  the  proposition 
into  Subject,  Predicate,  &c,  is  based  upon  the  uses  of 
those  parts. 


HELPS.  85 


THE  NOUN. 

(See  Topics,  p.  19.) 

10.  The  exercises  given  under  the  topics  Subject,  Predicate, 
and  Proposition,  contain  many  examples  of  the  NOUN. 

IF  I.  In  reciting,  names  are  not  to  be  given  yet  to  the 
kinds  of  nouns  nor  to  the  kinds  of  words  belonging  to 
other  classes.  We  are  now  making  general  divisions 
only.     Reasons  before  conclusions. 

T  II.  By  way  of  additional  practice  in  identifying 
nouns  the  pupil  may  select  any  correctly  written  arti- 
cle and  find  all  the  nouns  occurring  in  it,  applying 
the  definition  to  each  one.  He  should  continue  this 
practice  until  he  is  able  to  identify  nouns  off-hand. 
It  is  of  great  importance  that  in  every  instance  he 
should  verify  his  choice. 


Example  of  a  Hecitation* 

1 '  Beneath  a  bony  buttonwood, 

The  mill's  red  door  lets  forth  the  din; 
The  whitened  miller,  dust  imbued, 
Flits  past  the  square  of  dark  within." 

IT  III.  First  divide  the  propositions  into  subject  and 
predicate ;  do  this  always.     Then  : 

Buttonwood  is  a  word  which  names  an  object  of  thought 
and  which  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition.  It 
is  therefore  a  noun,  according  to  the  definition  :  A  noun  is 
a  word,  &c.,  &c. 


86  HELPS. 

The  Pronoun :  Recitation. 


When  the  pupil  says  a  certain  word  may  be  used  as  subject,  if 
it  does  not  happen  to  be  so  used,  as  in  the  case  of  buttonwood, 
above,  he  may  compose  a  proposition  in  which  the  noun  shall  be 
used  as  subject.  In  such  cases,  moreover,  the  pupil  should 
state,  if  possible,  what  is  the  relation  of  the  word.  In  this  in- 
stance he  would  continue,  speaking  of  buttonwood : 

It  is  not  used  either  as  subject  or  as  attribute. 
But  if  the  sentence  read, 

that  bony  tree  is  a  buttonwood, 

he  would  say  : 

It,  buttonwood,  is  here  used  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposi- 
tion. 

And  so  on  with  milVs,  door,  din,  miller,  squat e,  dark. 

1  IV.  On  no  account  should  the  pupil  proceed  to  the 
next  class  of  words  until  he  is  skilled  in  identifying  words 
of  the  given  class  :  this,  if  it  requires  a  week,  a  fortnight, 
or  a  month. 


THE    PRONOUN. 

(See  Topics,  p.  19.) 

11.  The  practice  work  on  pronouns  should  be  similar  to 
that  on  nouns.  It  should  consist  in  identifying  pronouns 
and  in  applying  the  definition,  and  also  in  determining  the 
relation  in  which  any  given  pronoun  is  used ;  but  not  yet  in 
distinguishing  kinds  of  pronouns. 


J&cample  of  a  Jtecitation. 

He  lifted  up  his  eyes. 

He  is  a  word,  not  a  noun,  which  is  used  instead  of 
a  noun.     It  is  therefore  a  pronoun,  according  to  the 


HELPS.  87 

The  Pronoun :  Exercise. 


definition  :  A  pronoun  is  a  word,  &c,  &c.  It  is  not 
a  noun  since  it  does  not  name  an  object  of  thought. 
It  is  used  instead  of  the  noun — (the  name  of  the  per- 
son referred  to).  It  is  the  subject  of  the  proposition 
of  which  lifted  up  liis  eyes  is  predicate. 

It  will  be  observed  that  these  statements  are  all  suggested  by 
the  definition  of  a  pronoun. 

IF  I.  On  no  account  should  the  student  proceed  to  the 
next  class  of  words  until  he  is  skilled  in  identifying  words 
of  the  given  class,  and  of  classes  previously  studied. 

Exercise  on  the  Pronoun. 

Point  out  both  the  nouns  and  the  pronouns.  The  pupil 
may  continue  giving  full  reasons  for  his  selections  of  words  : 
this,  until  he  is  perfectly  familiar  with  the  classes  of  words. 
No  mention  (yet)  of  kinds  of  nouns  or  pronouns. 

Mother  said  she  would  propose  a  plan.  Her  mind 
had  long  been  made  up  to  take  the  children  on  their 
anticipated  trip.  They  had  begged  to  be  taken  for  a 
sail  up  the  Hudson.  So,  after  consulting  father, 
mother  laid  the  plan  before  the  children  themselves 
and  suggested  the  following  Wednesday  for  a  holiday 
on  the  river.  The  girls  danced  with  delight,  and 
each  of  the  boys  thought  himself  the  happiest  body 
in  the  world.  Father  said  he  would  arrange  his  busi- 
ness so  that  it  should  take  care  of  itself  for  one  day, 
come  whatever  would.  This  almost  made  us  cry  for 
joy,  because  we  very  seldom  have  mother  and  father 
together  to  share  the  pleasure  of  our  merry  holidays. 
I  don't  know  which  of  the  children  was  most  eager. 


88  HELPS. 

The  Adjective  :   Limiting  words. 

Martha  was  really  quite  beside  herself.  Even  Jip 
knew  something  unusual  was  going  on,  for  he  was 
jealous  and  seemed  to  say,  "  You  do  not  take  much 
notice  of  me." 

On  the  appointed  morning  we  were  all  awake  by 
the  time  the  sun  showed  his  face.  Mother  had  said, 
"  Rest  yourselves  well,  and  do  not  get  up  until  seven." 
But  who  could  lie  abed  on  such  a  morning  ! 


LIMITING    WORDS. 

(See  Topics,  pp.  19,  20,) 

12,  a.  Words  limit  one  another  in  many  ways. 
Much  practice  should  be  had  in  applying  the  defini- 
tion of  "  to  limit  or  restrict "  before  going  on  with 
adjectives. 

Exercise. 

"  Milton  was,  like  Dante,  a  statesman  and  a  lover  ;  and, 
like  Dante,  he  had  been  unfortunate  in  ambition  and  in 
love.  He  had  survived  his  health  and  his  sight,  the  com* 
forts  of  his  home,  and  the  prosperity  of  his  party. 

Only  several  of  the  limiting  words  are  italicized.  The  pupil 
may,  in  each  case,  point  out  the  word  limited.  Of  his  party 
illustrates  the  fact  that  several  words  may  together  limit  another 
word. 


Example  of  a  Recitation. 

When  we  say,  simply,  he  had  survived,  we  do  not 
make  a  particularly  definite  application  of  survived. 


HELPS.  89 

The  Adjective :  Exercise. 

But  by  connecting  comforts  with  survived,  a  survival 
from  some  definite  loss  is  indicated,  and  we  are  led  to 
►  apply  the  term  survived  more  definitely.  Comforts, 
then,  may  be  described  as  a  word  which  is  so  used 
with  another  word  as  to  lead  us  to  make  a  more 
definite  application  of  that  word.  It  is  therefore  a 
limiting  word,  according  to  the  definition  :  A  word 
limits  or  restricts  another  word  when  it  is  so  used, 
&c,  &c. 


THE    ADJECTIVE. 

(See  Topics,  p.  20.) 

12,  d.  Bear  in  mind  that  an  adjective 

(1)  is  not  a  noun; 

(2)  is  not  a  pronoun ; 

(3)  and  may  be  placed  directly  before  a  noun  to 

limit  it. 

T  In  reciting,  the  reasons  should  be  stated  why  a 
given  adjective  is  neither  a  noun  nor  a  pronoun. 

If  in  a  given  instance  it  happens  that  the  adjective  is  not 
placed  directly  before  a  noun,  but  follows  it,  or  is  used  as 
attribute  or  to  limit  a  noun  understood,  the  fact  should  be 
stated. 

Exercise. 

From  my  study  I  see  in  the  lamplight, 

Descending  the  broad  hall  stair 
Grave  Alice,  and  laughing  Allegra, 

And  Edith  with  golden  hair. 


90  HELPS. 

The  Verb;   Hints. 

A  whisper  and  then  a  silence  : 
Yet  I  know  by  their  merry  eyes, 

They  are  plotting  and  planning  together 
To  take  me  by  surprise. 

A  sudden  rush  from  the  stairway, 
A  sudden  raid  from  the  hall ! 

By  three  doors  left  unguarded, 
They  enter  my  castle  wall ! 

They  climb  up  into  my  turret, 

O'er  the  arms  and  back  of  my  chair; 

If  I  try  to  escape  they  surround  me ; 
They  seem  to  be  everywhere. 

— Longfellow. 


THE   VERB, 

(See  Topics,  p.  21.) 

13,  a-b.  On  no  account  should  the  next  topic  be 
considered  until  the  pupil  is  ready  in  distinguishing 
verbs.  It  need  hardly  be  suggested  that  the  exercises 
should  be  continued  on  the  classes  of  words  already 
studied. 

IT  At  present  the  work  should  still  consist  mainly  in  learn- 
ing to  identify  verbs  by  applying  the  definitions.  In  study- 
ing verbs,  a  course  may  be  pursued  similar  to  that  suggested 
for  the  classes  previously  studied.  The  exercises  under  * 
preceding  topics  contain  many  examples  of  verbs,  with  and 
without  objects.  Keep  clearly  in  mind  the  definition  of  the 
class  of  words  to  be  studied.  And  do  not  confound  verb 
phrases  with  verbs. 


HELPS.  91 

The  Adverb  :   Examples. 


THE    ADVERB. 

(See  Topics,  p.  23.) 


14,  C.  The  use  of  the  adverb  almost  in  so  many  ways  illus- 
trates the  principle  that  the  class-membership  of  a  word  is  not 
determined  by  means  of  the  number  of  its  possible  relations,  but 
by  the  one  or  the  several  characteristic  relations  in  which  the 
word  may  be  used.  Adverbs  are  pre-eminently  limiting  words, 
and  as  such  may  limit  almost  all  the  kinds  of  words  in  various 
ways,  so  that  it  would  be  fatal  to  a  definition  of  an  adverb  to 
include  a  statement  of  all  those  uses,  or  of  any  more  of  them 
than  are  really  distinguishing  uses.  A  definition  is  a  limitation. 
A  description  may  be  limited  or  unlimited  according  to  the  pur- 
pose of  the  describer.  Both  are  useful  in  study.  But  defini- 
tions and  descriptions  must  not  be  made  to  do  exchange  duty. 

1"  In  those  cases  in  which  a  given  adverb  is  not  used  to 
limit  either  an  adjective  or  a  verb,  the  pupil  should  com- 
pose expressions  containing  the  adverb  used  in  one  of  those 
ways. 


Examples  of  the  Adverb, 

(For  Examples  of  Conjunctive  Adverbs,  see  p.  93.) 

i.  The  horse  grew  quite  thin. 

2.  The  snowflakes  fell  slowly  to  the  ground. 

3.  The  king  scowled  ominously. 

4.  The  rain  was  falling  fast. 

5.  It  is  natural  to  the  deer  to  move  gracefully. 

6.  He  leaped  far  beyond  the  mark. 


92  HELPS. 

The  Preposition:  Conjunction. 


THE    PREPOSITION. 

(See  Topics,  p.  25.) 

15.  In  his  practice  exercises  the  pupil  now  has  six  kinds 
of  words  to  talk  about.  And  in  his  descriptions  he  will, 
when  occasion  requires,  now  have  to  mention,  besides 
other  relations,  the  relation  of  an  object  of  a  verb  and  that 
of  an  object  of  a  preposition. 

1  The  illustrations,  under  preceding  topics,  contain  numer- 
ous examples  of  the  preposition  and  the  object  of  a  preposi- 
tion. Keep  the  definition  in  mind:  prepositions  connect 
-words. 


THE    CONJUNCTION. 

(See  Topics,  p.  26.) 

16,  d.  The  pupil  will  discover  that  it  is  often  necessary  to 
supply  understood  parts  when  explaining  the  uses  of  con- 
junctions. 

^[  In  distinguishing  between  conjunctions  and  prepositions,  and 
between  conjunctions  and  conjunctive  adverbs,  it  should  be  kept 
in  mind  that  the  class-membership  of  words  is  determined  by 
their  relations  to  the  proposition.     (See  p.  27,  par.  19.) 


Examples  of  the  Conjunction. 

1.  The  sun  shone  into  my  room  and  I  was  waked  by  his 

beams. 

2.  The  winds  blew  but  the  house  stood  firm. 

3.  You  may  come  to  us  or  we  will  go  to  you. 

4.  The  vase  fell  from  the  mantel  yet  was  not  broken. 


HELPS.  93 

The  Participle :  Examples* 

Examples  of  the  Conjunctive  Adverb. 

(See  also  under  the  Topic  Propositions,  p.  103.) 

1.  They  cannot  go  while  I  am  away. 

2.  Never  two  ladies  loved  as  they  do. 

3.  The  stag  at  eve  had  drunk  his  fill 

Where  danced  the  moon  on  Monan's  rill. 

4.  So  still  he  sate  as  those  who  wait 

Till  judgment  speake  the  doom  of  fate. 

5.  Do  you  love  him  because  I  do  ? 

6.  He  died  a  patriot's  death  after  he  had  fought 

bravely  for  his  country. 


THE    PARTICIPLE. 

(See  Topics,  p.  27.) 

17.  Occasionally  pupils  find  it  difficult,  in  the  case  of 
some  particular  word,  to  determine  whether  it  is  a  participle 
or  an  adjective.  In  such  cases,  carefully  recall  the  two  defi- 
nitions. If  a  word,  though  like  a  participle  in  other  re- 
spects, may,  without  change  of  meaning  or  sacrifice  of  sense \ 
be  actually  placed,  and  used,  before  the  noun  or  pronoun 
limited,  it  is  included  under  the  definition  of  an  adjective,, 
and  is  an  adjective.  While  a  word  that  is  really  an  adjective 
cannot  reasonably  be  included  under  the  definition  of  a  par- 
ticiple ;  because  the  definition  of  a  participle  would  have  a 
word  merely  "  partake  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective.''  (See 
recitation,  p.  94.) 


94  HELPS. 

The  Participle  :  Examples. 

Examples  of  the  Participle. 

i .       The  windows  rattling  in  their  frames, 
The  ocean  roaring  on  the  beach, 
The  gusty  blast,  the  bickering  flames, 
All  mingled  vaguely  in  our  speech. 

2.  Waste  not  a  sigh  on  fortune  changed. 

3.  All  nature's  children  feel  the  matin  spring 

Of  life  reviving  with  reviving  day. 

4.  There  is  no  flock  however  watched  and  tended, 

But  one  dead  lamb  is  there. 

5.  Two  good  friends  had  Hiawatha, 
Singled  out  from  all  the  others, 
Bound  to  him  in  closest  union. 

6.  There  was  a  stir  and  a  sound  in  the  slumbering 

village  of  Plymouth  ; 
Clanking  and  clicking  of  arms,  and  the  order 

imperative,  "  Forward  ! " 
Given  in  tone  suppressed. 


Example  of  a  Recitation. 
They  set  him  free  without  his  ransom  paid. 

Paid  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb  and  partaking  of 
the  nature  of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjective.  It  is  there- 
fore a  participle,  according  to  the  definition:  A  par- 
ticiple is  a  word,  &c,  &c.  It  is  derived  from  the 
verb  pay.  It  is  like  a  verb,  because  it  may  be  limited 
adverbially  in  the  way  in  which  a  verb  is  limited;  for 
instance,  we  might  say, 

without  his  ransom  paid  in  full, 


HELPS.  95 

The  Infinitive. 

in  which  case  in  full  limits  paid  adverbially.  Paid 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective  in  limiting  a 
noun,  ransom,  a  relation  characteristic  of  adjectives. 

1  This  example  illustrates  the  difference  between  a  par- 
ticiple  and  an  adjective.  As  the  expression  reads,  we  are 
led  to  understand  that  a  person  was  given  his  liberty  without 
the  paying  of  a  ransom.     But,  if  the  expression  should  read,. 

he  was  set  free  without  his  paid  ransom, 

we  might  understand  that  the  person  paid  a  ransom,  and 
that  it  was  not  returned  when  he  was  set  free ;  or  that  he 
had  had  in  his  possession  a  paid  ransom,  which,  however, 
was  taken  away  from  him,  and  he  was  sent  away  without  it. 
We  say,  then,  that  paid  in  the  original  expression  is  a 
participle ;  and  that  it  is  not  an  adjective,  because  it  can- 
not, without  change  of  meaning,  be  placed  before  the  noun 
to  limit  it. 


THE    INFINITIVE. 

(See  Topics,  p.  27.) 

18,  a.  In  this  description  the  infinitive  is  shown  to 
be  like  a  noun  in  being  used  as  the  object  of  a  prepo- 
sition. Nouns,  however,  are  used  in  other  common 
relations  besides  that  of  object  of  a  preposition  ;  for 
example,  as  subject,  as  object  of  a  participle,  as 
object  of  a  verb.  So  with  infinitives  :  they  may  be 
used  in  all  these  relations,  and,  therefore,  in  all  these 
respects  may  partake  of  the  nature  of  a  noun. 

IF  I.  Let  the  student  carefully  compare  the  definition  of 
an  infinitive  with  that  of  a  participle,  and  carefully  consider 


96  HELPS. 

The  Infinitive. 

the  various  ways  in  which  nouns  and  adjectives  may  be 
used.  He  will  then  be  able  to  distinguish  readily  between 
infinitives  and  participles,  and  to  recognize  readily  the  simi- 
larity of  infinitives  to  nouns,  and  of  participles  to  adjec- 
tives. 

IT  II.  The  following  propositions  all  contain  infinitives 
used  as  the  object  of  a  verb.  The  student  should  compose 
propositions  containing  infinitives  used  in  the  other  rela- 
tions mentioned. 

I  will  go  (meaning  practically,  I  will  the  act 
of  going), 

do  wait  (do  the  act  of  waiting), 

begin  writing, 

let  mo.  jump, 

make  him  laugh, 

compel  him  to  laugh, 

they  intend  starting  to-morrow, 

they  intend  to  start, 

he  prefers  riding, 

he  chooses  to  ride, 

she  can  sew, 

you  should  stop. 

%  III.  Some  of  these  examples  illustrate  still 
another  important  fact.  The  H  word  "  to,  where  it  oc- 
curs in  these  expressions,  cannot  be  assigned  any 
meaning.  It  has  not  any  meaning.  It  is  therefore 
not  a  word  at  all.  It  is  a  mere  sign  which  custom  re- 
quires us  to  employ  with  some  infinitives  and  to  omit 
with  others,  and  permits  us  to  employ  or  omit  as  we 
please  with  still  others. 

IT  IV.  Nevertheless  to  when  it  is  a  word  may  have  an 
infinitive  for  an  object,  as  in 


HELPS.  97 

The  Infinitive :    Examples. 

I  waited  to  s  e  e  you. 

Here  to  actually  has  a  meaning,  being  equivalent  to  in 
order  to,  and  it  is  a  word.  It  is  a  preposition.  See  is  its 
object,  and  is  an  infinitive. 


Examples  of  the  Infinitive* 

1.  He  chose  to  sit  there. 

2.  Let  me  see  it. 

3.  They  must  do  their  duty. 

4.  How  can  theyyfy  without  wings  ? 

5.  What  would  you  think  of  me  ? 

6.  I  enjoy  inhaling  the  crisp  air. 

7.  The  king  seems  desirous  of  advancing  the  interests  of  his 

country. 

8.  She  is  determined  to  try  the  remedy. 

9.  They  were  endeavoring  to  induce  him  to  arrange  a  pro- 

gram. 

10.  The  rattling  of  musketry  is  said  to  cause  horses  to  grow 

restive. 

11.  To  be  independent  is  with  many  persons  to  be  unscrupu- 

lous. 

12.  Now  I  do  frown  on  thee  with  all  my  heart. 

13.  I  have  more  cause  to  hate  him  than  to  love  him. 

14.  Perchance  the  maiden  smiled  to  see 
Yon  parting  lingerer  wave  adieu, 
And  stop  and  turn  to  wave  anew. 

15.  Let  me  remember  thee. 

16.  I  am  not  taught  to  make  anything. 

17.  I  did  find  him  still  mine  enemy. 

18.  Let  us  go  thank  him  and  encourage  him. 

19.  What  else  may  hap  to  time  I  will  commit. 

20.  It  shall  become  thee  well  to  act  my  woes. 

5 


98  HELPS. 

The  Infinitive:  Recitation. 


Example  of  a  Recitation. 
We  are  going  to  try  reading  him  to  sleep* 
Reading  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb  and  partaking 
of  the  nature  of  a  verb  and  of  a  noun.  It  is  there- 
fore an  infinitive,  according  to  the  definition  :  An  in- 
finitive is  a  word,  &c,  &c.  It  is  derived  from  the 
verb  read.  It  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  verb  in 
taking  an  object,  him.  It  is  the  object  of  an  infinitive 
(try),  and  in  that  respect  is  like  a  noun,  nouns  being 
often  used  as  object. 

Remark. — The  pupil  must  persevere  in  applying 
the  definitions  and  the  principles,  each  one  separately, 
again  and  again.  But  the  object  must  not  be  to  be- 
come glib  in  repeating  definitions  and  statements  of 
principles.  Our  aim  should  be  to  know  the  facts 
Stated  in  definitions  and  to  know  principles  ;  in  short, 
to  know  English  grammar. 


HELPS.  99 


PROPOSITIONS. 

(See  Topics,  pp.  29-35.) 


23.  The  process  of  dividing  a  proposition  into  its 
parts  is  called  analysis.  An  analysis  should  gener- 
ally be  accompanied  with  descriptions  of  the  various 
parts.  The  analysis  of  a  proposition  may  follow 
some  such  order  as  the  following  : 

1.  Declarative?  2.  Simple? 

Interrogative?  Compound  ? 

Imperative?  Complex? 

3.  If  simple  : 

Subject  ?  Predicate  ?  Phrases  ? 

4.  If  compound: 

Clauses  ?     Why  called  independent  ? 
Analyze  the  clauses : 

Subject  ?         Predicate  ?         Phrases  ? 

5.  If  complex  : 

Clauses :  Why  called  principal  and  subordinate  ? 
Analyze  the  clauses : 

Subject?         Predicate?  Phrases? 

1  If  a  clause  is  used  substantively,  adjectively,  or  ad- 
verbially, the  fact  should  be  mentioned.  Reasons  before 
conclusions. 


IOO  HELPS. 

Propositions :  Recitation. 

Example  of  a  Recitation* 

This  recitation  is  not  complete.  It  is  intended  to  show  espe- 
cially a  way  of  distinguishing  a  proposition. 

You  now  perceive  what  the  trouble  is. 

This  is  a  declarative  sentence.     It  contains  two  proposi- 
tions, 

you  now  perceive,  and 
what  the  trouble  is. 
The  latter  is  used  to  limit  the  former  by  serving  as  object  to 
the  verb  of  the  former.  The  former,  then,  is  a  principal 
proposition  ;  the  latter,  a  subordinate ;  and  the  whole  ex- 
pression is  a  complex  proposition,  the  subject  of  which  is 
you,  and  the  complete  predicate,  now  perceive  what  the 
trouble  is. 

The  subject  of  the  subordinate  proposition  is  trouble  % 
the  predicate  (complete),  is  what. 

We  have  said  that  what  the  trouble  is  is  the  object  of  a 
verb  :  in  that  respect  it  is  like  a  noun,  and  is  therefore  a 
substantive  clause,  i 


Examples  of  the  Direct  and  the  Indirect  Object. 

(See  Topics,  p.  32,  a.) 

1.  We  paid  the  men  their  wages. 

2.  Let  me  see. 

3.  Let  us  forgive  them  their  debts. 

4.  I'll  give  thy  harp  heroic  theme. 

5.  Experience  has  taught  men  many  severe  lessons. 

6.  Her  mother  was  engaged  that  moment  in  teaching  her 

music. 

7.  I  was  asking  the  gentleman  his  name. 


HELPS.  IOI 

Propositions :   Exercise. 

Examples  of  Propositions  ^Clauses,  and  Phrases. 

i .  Delays  are  dangerous. 

2.  The  gentle  rain  refreshes  the  thirsty  flowers. 

3.  A  transient  calm  the  happy  scenes  bestow. 

4.  These  are  suggestions  of  a  mind  at  ease. 

5.  My  master  is  of  churlish  disposition. 

6.  A  great  cause  of  the  night  is  lack  of  the  sun. 

7.  It  was  the  deep  midnoon. 

8.  I  thank  thee  for  thy  love  to  me. 

9.  Spinning  tops  is  a  favorite  amusement  with  boys. 

10.  To  preach  is  not  to  practice. 

1 1 .  Havoc  and  spoil  and  ruin  are  my  gain. 

12.  His  father  left  him  well  off. 

13.  From  peak  to  peak  the  rattling  crags  among 
Leaps  the  live  thunder. 

14.  Now  I  do  frown  on  thee  with  all  my  heart. 

1.5.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  very  ingenious  youth. 

16.  Men  have  died  from  time  to  time. 

17.  They  danced  themselves  out  of  breath. 

18.  I  have  enough  money  for  the  present. 

19.  Disgusted  by  his  discreditable  acts,  nearly  all  the  man's 

friends  deserted  him. 
-20.  You  have  done  very  well  on  the  whole. 
21.  Having  collected  his  army,  Hannibal  began  his  march. 
,22.  Wilt  take  thy  chance  with  me  ? 
23.  It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive. 

1.  Now  came  still  evening  in,  and  twilight  gray 
Had  in  her  silver  livery  all  things  clad. 

2.  Revenge  is  an  act  of  passion ;  vengeance,  of  justice. 

3.  Puss  is  still  living  and  has  just  completed  his  ninth  year. 


102  HELPS. 

Propositions:  Exercise. 

4.  O'er  rough  and  smooth  she  trips  along  and  never  looks 

behind. 

5.  The  day  is  cold  and  dark  and  dreary ; 
It  rains  and  the  wind  is  never  weary. 

6.  The  sea  hath  its  pearls,  the  heaven  hath  its  stars,  but 

my  heart  hath  its  love. 

7.  The  familiar  seems  trivial,  and  only  the  distant  and 

unknown  completely  fill  and  satisfy  the  mind. 

8.  Either  you  or  he  must  go. 

9.  You  have  the  power  to  command,  nevertheless  I  will 

not  come. 
10.   In  the  process  of  ordinary  distillation,  the  liquid  to  be 
distilled  is  heated  and  converted  into  vapor  in  one 
vessel,  and  chilled  and  re-converted   into  liquor  in 
another. 

1.  Though  the  deep  between  us  rolls, 
Friendship  shall  unite  our  souls. 

2.  His  praise  is  lost  who  waits  till  all  commend. 

3.  There  have  been  holy  men  who  hid  themselves 
Deep  in  the  woody  wilderness,  and  gave 
Their  lives  to  thought  and  prayer. 

4.  Come,  sir,  here's  the  place. 

5.  My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 
A  rainbow  in  the  sky. 

6.  The  bubbling  brook  doth  leap  when  I  come  by, 
Because  my  feet  find  measure  with  its  call. 

7.  I'm  a  careless  potato  and  care  not  a  pin 
How  into  existence  I  came. 

8.  As  night  to  stars,  woe  lustre  gives  to  man. 

9.  Whate'er  the  motive,  pleasure  is  the  mark. 

10.  Up  guards  !  and  at  them  ! 

11.  I  ask  you:  are  you  innocent  or  guilty? 


HELPS.  103 

General  Exercises. 


12.  If  I  were  not  Alexander,  I  would  be  Diogenes. 

13.  The  good  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

14.  All  that  I  dread  is  leaving  you  behind. 

15.  Those  that  think  must  govern  those  that  toil. 

16.  They  never  fail  who  die  in  a  just  cause. 

17.  He  did  what  was  required  of  him. 

18.  Thou  see'st  I  am  calm. 

19.  When  icicles  hang' by  the  wall, 

And  Dick  the  shepherd  blows  his  nail, 
And  Tom  bears  logs  into  the  hall, 

And  milk  comes  frozen  home  in  pail ; 
When  blood  is  nipp'd,  and  ways  be  foul, 
Then  nightly  sings  the  staring  owl, 
To-who. 


Exercises  in  Distinguishing  Propositions^ 
Clauses,  Phrases,  and   Words. 

I. 
Once,  when  the  weather  was  very  dry,  a  thirsty 
crow  searched  everywhere  for  water,  but  she  could 
not  find  a  drop.  While  she  was  croaking  for  sorrow, 
she  spied  a  jug.  Down  she  flew  at  once,  and  eagerly 
pushed  in  her  bill ;  but  it  was  of  no  use.  There  was 
plenty  of  water  in  the  jug,  but  she  could  not  reach  it, 
because  the  neck  of  the  vessel  was  too  narrow.  After 
she  had  tried  in  vain  for  half  an  hour  to  reach  the 
water,  she  next  attempted  to  tip  the  jug  over  ;  but  it 
was  too  heavy  for  her,  and  she  could  not  stir  it.  Just 
when  she  was  on  the  point  of  giving  up  in  despair,  a 


104  HELPS. 

General  Exercises. 

new  thought  struck  her.  "If,"  said  she,  "I  drop 
some  stones  into  the  jug,  the  water  will  rise  higher, 
and  in  time  it  will  rise  up  to  my  bill."  Immediately, 
though  she  was  nearly  fainting  with  thirst,  she  brave- 
ly set  to  work.  As  each  stone  fell,  the  water  rose  ; 
and  before  half  an  hour  had  passed,  the  clever  crow 
had  quite  quenched  her  thirst. 

II. 

The  poetry  of  Milton  differs  from  that  of  Dante,  as 
the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt  differed  from  the  picture- 
writing  of  Mexico.  The  images  which  Dante  em- 
ploys speak  for  themselves: — they  stand  simply  for 
what  they  are.  Those  of  Milton  have  a  signification 
which  is  often  discernible  only  to  the  initiated.  Their 
value  depends  less  on  what  they  directly  represent, 
than  on  what  they  remotely  suggest.  However 
strange,  however  grotesque,  may  be  the  appearance 
which  Dante  undertakes  to  describe,  he  never  shrinks 
from  describing  it.  He  gives  us  the  shape,  the  color, 
the  sound,  the  smell,  the  taste;  he  counts  the  num- 
bers; he  measures  the  size.  His  similes  are  the  illus- 
trations of  a  traveller.  Unlike  those  of  other  poets, 
and  especially  of  Milton,  they  are  introduced  in  a 
plain,  business-like  manner;  not  for  the  sake  of  any 
beauty  in  the  objects  from  which  they  are  drawn,  not 
for  the  sake  of  any  ornament  which  they  may  impart 
to  the  poem,  but  simply  in  order  to  make  the  mean- 
ing of  the  writer  as  clear  to  the  reader  as  it  is  to 
himself. 


HELPS.  I05 


THE    CLASSES    SEPARATELY    STUDIED. 


NOUNS:  PROPERTIES. 

(See  Topics,  pp.  36-48.) 

Remark. — Up  to  this  point,  our  work  in  connection  with 
nouns,  and  with  the  other  classes,  has  consisted  merely  in  iden- 
tifying words  as  members  of  classes.  Now,  the  classes  of  words 
are  to  be  studied  separately,  and  we  are  to  learn  of  the  kinds 
and  properties  of  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  &c,  and  of  the 
rules  governing  the  use  of  the  various  forms  of  words. 

37.  As  each  new  fact  is  learned  concerning  nouns  or  any 
other  class  of  words,  the  pupil  in  reciting  should  enlarge 
his  descriptions  accordingly.  In  describing  a  noun,  he  will 
now  have  to  mention,  besides  other  things,  the  number  of 
the  noun. 

41-47.  One  can  best  learn  by  observation  concerning  the 
formation  of  plurals.  Much  information  on  the  subject  of 
irregular  plurals  and  kindred  subjects  is  to  be  obtained  in 
the  dictionaries,  and  in  the  encyclopedias  of  grammar.  As 
occasions  present,  reviews  upon  irregular  forms  will  be 
found  practicable.     (See  the  Lists,  pp.  1 21-31.) 

48.  For  exercises  in  genders  and  gender  equivalents,  the 
lists  at  the  end  of  the  book  may  be  used. 

ON   THE   DEFINITION    OF    CASES. 

Every  word  when  used  at  all  in  a  proposition,  is  used  in  some  re- 
lation.    So  with  every  form  of  any  word.     Hence  there  arises  the 
danger  of  misapplying  the  definition  of  cases,  and  assuming  that 
5* 


I06;  HELPS. 

Nouns  :  Parsing. 

every  word  and  every  form  of  a  word  is  a  case.  This  danger 
may  be  easily  avoided  by  keeping  in  mind  the  distinction  be- 
tween using  a  word  in  a  certain  relation,  and  using  a  form  on 
account  of  a  certain  relation.     Thus,  in 

the  hero  saved  the  heroine  s  life, 
the  nominative  hero  and  the  possessive  heroine's  are  employed  on 
account  of  the  relation  in  which  they  are  used  respectively.  It 
would  be  obviously  incorrect  to  use  the  possessive  form  of  hero 
in  the  relation  in  which  the  word  hero  is  used,  and  the  nomina- 
tive heroine  for  the  relation  of  heroine's,  saying, 
the  hero's  saved  the  heroine  life. 

But  it  would  not  be  grammatically  incorrect  to  interchange 
hero  and  heroine  as  genders,  saying, 

the  heroine  saved  the  hero's  life ; 
for  a  gender  indicates  a  sex  as  a  mere  fact,  and  genders  are  not 
used  on  account  0/" grammatical  relations. 

In  like  manner,  comparing  cases  with  numbers,  tenses,  and 
other  forms,  it  may  be  shown  that  only  cases  are  used  on  account 
of  certain  grammatical  relations. 


on  the:  parsing  of  words. 

If  h  Analysis,  we  have  seen  (p.  99),  consists  in 
dividing  a  proposition  into  its  parts  and  describing 
those  parts  as  such.  But  we  may  describe  words  as 
members  of  classes.  To  describe  a  word  in  this  way 
is  to  parse  it. 

IF  II.  It  is  presumed  that  the  pupil  has  had  practice  in 
applying  each  new  principle  at  the  time  it  was  taught.  So 
that  in  giving  a  full  description  of  a  noun  he  will  have  a 
number  of  facts  to  observe  and  mention. 


HELPS.  I07 

Nouns :  Parsing. 

Tf  III.  The  following  list  and  example  of  parsing  are  given 
t>y  way  of  suggestion  merely.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  first 
few  lines  repeat  in  substance  a  recitation  given  under  the  defini- 
tion of  a  noun.  The  repetition  is  made  simply  for  the  sake  of 
completeness. 


On  the  Parsing  of  Nouns. 

ORDER. 

1.  Distinguishing  qualities. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Number. 

4.  Gender. 

5.  The  noun's  relation : 

6.  Case. 

7.  Rule  for  construction. 

8.  Remarks. 

Example : 

There  lives  more  faith  in  honest  doubt, 
Believe  me,  than  in  half  the  creeds. 

First,  more  or  less  extended  analysis.     Then: 

Creeds  is  a  word  which  names  an  object  of  thought 
and  which  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposi- 
tion. It  is  therefore  a  noun,  according  to  the  defini- 
tion :  A  noun  is  a  word  which  names  an  object  of 
thought  and  which  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
proposition.  It  is  a  plural  number  and  has  no  gen- 
der. It  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  of  under- 
stood, and  is  in  the  nominative  case,  according  to  the 
rule  :  A  noun  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition 
must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 


108  HELPS. 

Pronouns:  Parsing. 

(Remark.)     We  may  consider  the  words  half  the  creeds 

intimately  enough  connected  to  compose  a  phrase,  and  to 
be  as  such  the  object  of  the  preposition  in. 

IF  IV.  The  pupil,  for  a  time,  should  state  his  reasons  for 
saying  a  word  is  of  one  gender  or  another,  or  of  a  certain 
number  or  case.  He  should  never  make  a  statement  he 
does  not  understand  and  cannot  verify. 

f  V.  When  the  pupil  has  become  familiar  with  the 
principles  taught,  it  will  not  be  necessary  for  him  to  make 
the  parsing  so  complete.  In  fact,  he  should  then  abbrevi- 
ate, so  that  his  time  and  attention  may  be  more  fully  occu- 
pied with  new  subjects. 

The  following  is  an  abbreviated  form  of  the  foregoing  exam- 
ple of  parsing  : 

Creeds  is  a  noun  of  the  plural  number,  in  the 
nominative  case,  and  is  the  object  of  a  preposition. 
With  half  and  the  it  forms  a  phrase,  half  the  creeds, 
which  is  object  of  the  preposition  in. 


pronouns:   properties. 

(See  Topics,  pp.  50-55.) 

66,  C.  Because  we  say  that  pronouns  have  persons,  num- 
bers, genders,  and  cases,  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  every 
pronoun  has  all  of  these  properties.  A  little  thought  will 
lead  to  the  opposite  conclusion.  The  term  pronouns  is 
applied  to  the  class  pronouns.     (See  Topics,  par.  38.) 


HELPS.  IO9 

Pronouns :  Parsing. 

On  the  Parsing  of  Pronouns. 

ORDER. 

1.  Distinguishing  qualities. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Person.     4.  Number.     5.  Gender. 

6.  The  pronoun's  relation: 

7.  Case.     8.  Rule  for  construction. 

9.  Antecedent.     10.  Rule  for  agreement. 
11.  Remarks. 

Example : 

Huntsman,  rest !  thy  chase  is  done. 

First,  more  or  less  complete  analysis.     Then  : 

Thy  is  a  word,  not  a  noun,  used  instead  of  a  noun. 
It  is  therefore  a  pronoun,  according  to  the  definition: 
A  pronoun  is  a  word,  &c,  &c.  It  is  of  the  second 
person,  singular  number  ;  it  has  no  gender.  It  is 
used  to  denote  possession  (in  a  certain  sense)  and  is 
in  the  possessive  case,  according  to  the  rule  :  A  pro- 
noun used  to  limit  by  denoting  possession,  &c,  &c. 

The  antecedent  of  thy  is  huntsman,  with  which  it 
agrees  in  number.  Rule  :  A  pronoun  must  agree 
with  its  antecedent,  &c,  &c. 

(Remarks.)  Thy  here  limits  the  noun  chase.  Hunts- 
man has  gender,  but  thy  has  not ;  hence  these  words  can 
not  agree  in  gender.  Thy  is  a  possessive  pronoun  for 
which  thine  is  sometimes  used  as  an  equivalent. 


no  HELPS. 

Adjectives :  Parsing. 

0         ADJECTIVES:    PARSING. 

(See  Topics,  pp.  56-58.) 

81.  It  is  not  proper  in  speaking  of  the  forms  of  an  adjec- 
tive, say  noble,  nobler,  noblest,  to  call  one  a  positive 
degree,  another  a  comparative  degree,  and  the  third  a  super- 
lative degree. 


On  the  Parsing  of  Adjectives* 

ORDER. 

1.  Distinguishing  qualities. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Number  (when  the  adjective  has  number). 

4.  Comparison. 

5.  Relation. 

6.  Remarks. 

Example  : 

Affliction,  when  I  know  it,  is  but  this  : 
A  deep  alloy  whereby  man  tougher  is. 

First,  more  or  less  complete  analysis.     Then  : 

Tougher  is  a  word,  neither  noun  nor  pronoun, 
which  may  be  placed  directly  before  a  noun  to  limit 
it.  It  is  therefore  an  adjective,  according  to  the 
definition  :  An  adjective  is  a  word,  &c,  &c.  Tougher 
is  the  comparative  form  (not  comparative  degree)  of 
the  adjective  tough,  the  superlative  form  of  which  is. 
toughest.  It  is  used  here  as  the  attribute  of  the 
proposition, 

*     *     man  is  tougher, 
and  limits  the  noun  man.     We  may  say  it  limits  some 


HELPS.  Ill- 

Verbs:  Parsing. 

noun  as  person,  or  body,  understood.  That  noun 
would  then  be  attribute  of  the  proposition,  and 
tougher  merely  a  limiting  word.  (Remark.)  It  is 
proper  to  say  more  tough  and  most  tough. 

T  At  the  proper  time  the  pupil  may  abbreviate  j  for 
example  : 

Abbreviated  Form. 
Tougher  (above)  is  an  adjective  of  the  comparative 
form.     The  positive  form  is  tough ;  superlative,  tough- 
est.    This  adjective  is  used  as  attribute  of  the  propo- 
sition, 

*     *     man  is  tougher. 

Or  we  may  describe  it  as  limiting  a  noun  understood, 
as  person,  which  would  in  that  case  be  the  attribute.  . 


VERBS  :    PARSING. 

(See  Topics,  pp.  59-65.) 

90«  For  lists  of  irregular  verbs  see  the  end  of  the  book. 
For  remarks  on  the  disposition  of  verb  phrases,  see  pp.  117- 
20. 


On  the  Parsing  of  Verbs, 

ORDER. 

1.  Distinguishing  qualities. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Person.     4.  Number.     5.  Tense. 
6.  Subject :     7.  Agreement  (Rule). 

8    Use —  I  trans-(?)>  obJect- 
(  intrans. 

9.  Remarks. 


112  HELPS. 

Adverbs:  Parsing. 

JExample  : 

High  in  his  pathway  hung  the  sun. 

First,  more  or  less  complete  analysis.     Then  : 

Hung  is  a  word  used  as  the  predicate  of  a  proposi- 
tion. It  is  therefore  a  verb,  according  to  the  defini- 
tion :  A  verb  is  a  word,  &c,  &c.  Hung  is  not  a  per- 
son nor  a  number.  It  is  of  the  past  tense.  Its  subject 
is  sun.  But,  not  having  either  a  person  or  a  number, 
hung  does  not  agree  with  sun.  The  verb  is  here  used 
intransitively  and  consequently  does  not  have  an  ob- 
ject. The  simple  form  of  the  present  tense  of  this 
verb  is  hang. 

1"  In  those  cases  in  which  the  verb  is  combined 
with  a  number  of  other  words  to  form  a  verb  phrase, 
the  pupil  should  make  mention  of  the  fact.  (See 
pp.  ir7-2o.) 


ADVERBS. 

(See  Topics,  p.  66.) 

On  the  Parsing  of  Adverbs. 

ORDER. 

1.  Distinguishing  qualities. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Comparison. 

4.  Actual  relation. 

5.  Kind  of  adverb  (why  ?).     If  conjunctive  :  prop- 

ositions connected. 

6.  Remarks. 

Some  of  the  irregularly  compared  adverbs  will  be  found  on 
p.  125. 


HELPS.  113 

Prepositions :  Conjunctions. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

(See  Topics,  p.  25.) 

On  the  Parsing  of  Prepositions* 

ORDER. 

1.  Distinguishing  qualities. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Words  connected. 

4.  Object  of  preposition. 

5.  Remarks. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

(See  Topics,  p.  67.) 

On  the  Parsing  of  Conjunctions. 

ORDER. 

1.  Distinguishing  qualities. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Propositions  connected. 

4.  Kind  of  conjunction. 

5.  Remarks. 

Tf  It  was  stated  in  the  Topics,  under  adverbs,  that  the  "  rules  " 
for  the  use  of  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  were  pur- 
posely omitted.  We  will  select  the  "  rules  "  for  these  classes  of 
words  as  given  in  one  of  the  grammars,  and  will  use  them  in 
justifying  their  omission  from  this  book : 

An  Adverb  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective, 

or  another  adverb. 
A  Preposition  shows  the  relation  of  an  object  (object?)  to 
some  other  (other  ?)  word  on  which  the  adjunct  depends. 
A  Conjunction  connects  words,   phrases,  clauses,  or  sen- 
tences. 


114  HELPS. 

Participles:  Parsing. 

In  the  first  place,  these  statements  are  not  rules.  The  rules 
to  be  found  in  this  work  are  imperative  statements  of  a  pre- 
scribed course  to  be  observed  in  using  certain  words  and  cer- 
tain forms.  A  rule  should  affirm  that  so  and  so  must  be  or 
should  he,  &c,  &c. 

Again,  we  have  learned  that  adverbs  may  limit  other  words 
than  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs.  The  "rule,"  then,  is  mis- 
leading. 

Further,  it  is  true  that  prepositions  indicate  the  relations  of 
the  objects  denoted  by  the  words  connected.  But  the  relations 
of  objects  to  one  another  are  not  grammatical  relations  and  need 
not  be  mentioned  in  a  grammar.  We  may  say  with  propriety 
that  prepositions  indicate  the  relations  to  each  other  of  the  words 
they  connect,  but  the  statement  of  the  fact  is  not  a  rule,  and  is 
not  of  first  importance. 

Lastly,  in  our  definition  we  say  that  conjunctions  connect 
propositions;  so  that  there  is  no  need  of  any  "rule"  to  call 
attention  to  that  fact. 


PARTICIPLES:  PARSING. 

(See  Topics,  pp.  68, 69.) 

On  the  Parsing  of  Participles, 

Since  pupils  find  participles  and  infinitives  more  difficult 
to  understand  than  other  kinds  of  words,  the  work  upon 
these  subjects  should  be  made  very  thorough. 

ORDER. 

ideriv.  from  verb, 
nat.  of  a  verb, 
nat.  of  an  adj. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Verb  from  which  derived. 


HELPS.  115 

Participles:  Parsing. 

4.  Respect  in  which  similar  to  a  verb. 

5.  Respect  in  which  similar  to  an  adjective. 

6.  Principal  parts  of  corresponding  verb. 

7.  Remarks. 

Example  • 

From  the  steep  promontory  gazed 
The  stranger,  raptured  and  amazed. 

First,  more  or  less  complete  analysis.     Then  : 

Raptured  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb  and  par- 
taking of  the  nature  of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjective. 
It  is  therefore  a  participle,  according  to  the  defi- 
nition: A  participle  is  a  word,  &c,  &c.  It  is  de- 
rived from  the  verb  rapture.  It  partakes  of  the  na- 
ture of  a  verb  because  it  may  be  limited  by  an  adverb 
as  a  verb  is  limited.  It  partakes  of  the  nature  of  an 
adjective  in  limiting  adjectively  stranger,  a  noun.  It 
is  a  regular  perfect  participle.  The  principal  parts  of 
the  corresponding  verb  are  rapture,  and  raptured. 

Remark. — It  may  be  said,  also,  that  the  relation  of  rap- 
tured to  stranger  is  similar  to  that  of  a  noun  in  apposition 
with  another  noun.  It  may  therefore  be  said  to  limit 
stranger  appositively.  That  relation  of  the  participle  is  not 
inconsistent  with  the  definition,  which  declares  the  partici- 
ple to  be  like  an  adjective ;  because  the  relation  of  apposi- 
tion, though  common  with  nouns,  is  really  not  a  substan- 
tive relation,  but  adjectival. 

IT  When  the  participle  is  part  of  a  phrase  the  fact  should 
be  noted. 


Il6  HELPS. 

Infinitives:  Parsing. 

INFINITIVES :  PARSING. 

(See  Topics,  p.  70.) 

On  the  Parsing  of  Infinitives* 

ORDER. 

(  deriv.  from  verb. 

1.  Distinguishing  qualities  -<  nat.  of  a  verb. 

(  nat.  of  a  noun. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Verb  from  which  derived. 

4.  Respect  in  which  similar  to  a  verb. 

5.  Respect  in  which  similar  to  a  noun. 

6.  Principal  parts  of  corresponding  verb. 

7.  Remarks. 

Example: 

He  can  do  little  that  can't  do  this. 

First,  more  or  less  complete  analysis.     Then  : 

Do  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb  and  partaking  of 
the  nature  of  a  verb  and  of  a  noun.  It  is  therefore 
an  infinitive,  according  to  the  definition:  An  infinitive 
is  a  word,  &c.,  &c.  It  is  derived  from  the  verb  do. 
It  is  like  a  verb  in  that  it  may  take  an  object  (unless 
we  consider  little  to  be  a  noun,  in  which  case  do  does 
take  an  object).  It  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  noun 
in  being  the  object  of  a  verb,  can.  The  correspond- 
ing perfect  participle  is  done.  The  principal  parts  of 
the  corresponding  verb  are  do  and  did. 

IT  Exercises  in  analysis  and  parsing  can  be  varied  in 
many  ways.  Some  teachers  may  deem  it  necessary  to  sup- 
plement the  exercises  with  more  or  less  work  of  various 
kinds.  Some  may  choose  to  abridge.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  grammar  is  not  the  most  important  of  studies, 
and  in  assigning  work  to  pupils  the  teacher  should  consider 
lime  and  the  comparative  importance  of  the  subject. 


HELPS.  117 


VERB    PHRASES. 


ON  the:  disposition  of  phrases. 

%  I.  In  disposing  of  verb  phrases  containing,  besides  the 
verb,  both  participles  and  infinitives,  there  is  seldom  any  difficul- 
ty in  distinguishing  the  verb.  Whenever  there  is  any  difficulty, 
it  is  generally  occasioned  by  the  participles  and  the  infinitives. 
Therefore  it  has  seemed  best  to  introduce  the  discussion  of  this 
subject  after  the  topics,  Participles,  and  Infinitives. 


Example   of  a  Recitation* 

He  must  have  been  injured. 

Must  hare  been  injured  is  a  verb  phrase  form- 
ing the  predicate  of  the  proposition.  Injured  is  a 
perfect  participle  limiting  he,  the  subject,  and  is  the 
attribute  of  the  proposition.  Must  is  a  verb  having 
no  tense,  no  person,  and  no  number.  Have  is  an  in- 
finitive, the  object  of  must.  Been  is  a  perfect  partici- 
ple joined  with  must  have  to  form  a  copula  connect- 
ing the  attribute  injured  with  the  subject.  The  words 
together  form  a  phrase  representing  an  act  as  certain- 
ly performed  at  some  past  time  not  specified. 

1  II.  It  will  be  noticed  that  have  was  not  said  to  take  an 
object,  though  it  is  ordinarily  transitive ;  and  that  been,  a 
perfect  participle,  was  not  called  an  attribute.  To  explain 
this,  a  long  statement  is  necessary.  The  explanation  is 
logical  rather  than  grammatical ; 


Il8  HELPS. 

Verb  Phrases  discussed. 


IF  III.  The  expression, 

I  will  go, 

one  of  the  examples  given  under  the  topic  Infinitive  (p. 
96),  was  said  to  mean,  practically,  I  will  the  act  of  going. 
So 

I  ought  (to)  go 

means  practically  I  owe  the  act  of  going.  In  the  first 
example  will  is  a  verb  and  go  is  an  infinitive,  object  of  will } 
in  the  second,  ought  is  a  verb  and  go  is  an  infinitive,  object 
of  ought.     And  in 

I  shall  go, 
I  may  go, 
I  can  go, 
I  must  go, 

go  is  an  infinitive,  object  respectively  of  shall,  may,  can,  and 
must. 
Again  in 

I  shall  be, 

I  may  be, 

I  can  be, 

I  must  be, 

be  is  an  infinitive,  and,  like  go  in  the  preceding  examples,  it 
is  the  object  of  a  verb  in  each  instance.  But  these  expres- 
sions sound  incomplete.  Let  us  add  the  word  walking,  so 
that  the  expressions  shall  read, 

I  shall  be  walking, 
I  may  be  walking, 
I  can  be  walking, 
I  must  be  walking. 

The  word  walking  in  each  case  limits  the  subject,  I,  and 
is  an  attribute.    It  is  connected  with  the  subject  by  shall 


HELPS.  Iig 

Verb  Phrases  discussed- 


be,  may  be,  and  so  on,  which  are  therefore  copulas.  Yet 
shall,  may,  can,  and  must  are  still  verbs.  And  be  is  still 
an  infinitive  in  each  example,  just  as  it  was  in  the  preceding 
examples: 

Again,  let  us  substitute  have  for  be  in  I  shall  be, 
forming 

I  shall  have. 

Hare,  like  be,  is  an  infinitive,  and  is  the  object  of  shall* 
I  shall  have,  however,  does  not  sound  complete.  We  may 
add  the  book,  saying, 

I  shall  have  the  book, 

have  signifying  possess.  And  if  we  wish  to  describe  the 
condition  of  the  book  which  is  to  be  possessed  we  may  add 
the  word  bound,  saying, 

I  shall  have  the  book  bound, 

have  still  meaning  possess.  As  before,  shall  is  a  verb,  and 
have  is  its  object.  But  now  have,  also,  has  an  object,  book, 
which  is  limited  by  bound,  a  perfect  participle. 

Furthermore,  if  we  choose  to  put  the  perfect  participle 
nearer  to  the  verb  phrase,  we  may  by  transposing  obtain 

I  shall  have  bound  the  book. 

By  this  transposition  the  meaning  of  the  expression  is . 
greatly  changed.  Whereas  before,  the  expression  only  in- 
dicated the  time  at  which  possession  of  the  book  was  to  be 
obtained,  without  reference  to  the  time  of  the  binding,  it 
now  declares  particularly  that  the  binding  is  to  be  com- 
pleted at  some  future  time.  Indeed,  shall  have  bound  is  a 
perfect  tense  phrase.  But  in  producing  it,  have  has  lost  its 
meaning  of  possess,  and  no  longer  takes  an  object.  It  has 
lost  individuality  in  becoming  part  of  a  phrase  having  a  pe- 


120  HELPS. 

Verb  Phrases  discussed. 


culiar  meaning.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  parsed  as  fully  as 
when  possessed  of  an  individual  force.  Such  is  the  case 
generally  with  words  that  go  to  make  up  phrases.  This  is 
shown  further  in 

they  have  gone. 

Here,  though  a  present  tense,  have  is  joined  with  a  per- 
fect participle  to  form  a  phrase  representing  an  act  per- 
formed during /dtf/  time.     And  in 

they  may  have  gone, 

the  infinitive  have  serves  a  similar  purpose.  If  we  divide 
these  phrases,  have  gone  and  may  have  gone,  and  attempt 
to  ascribe  to  each  word  the  force  it  would  have  if  used 
alone,  we  shall  destroy  the  peculiar  force  of  the  phrase.  The 
same  is  true  of  must  have  been  injured  in 

he  must  have  been  injured, 

the  example  used  in  the  recitation  introducing  this  topic ; 
also  of  such  expressions  as 

he  was  to  have  been  made  secretary,  and 
the  king  having  been  dethroned,  the  prince  was 
crowned. 

We  may  say,  then,  in  general  terms  :  Whenever  several 
words,  composing  part  of  a  proposition,  are  so  intimately 
combined  in  a  phrase  as  to  lose  individual  force,  the  nicer 
analysis  may  be  waived,  and  the  words  may  be  described  as 
phrase  members.  This  is  true  of  adverb  phrases  and 
phrases  of  other  kinds,  as  well  as  of  verb  phrases. 


HELPS. 


121 


LISTS     OF     WORDS 

FOR 

EXERCISES    ON    IRREGULAR    FORMS,    &c. 


Remark. — These  lists  are  not  intended  to  be  complete 
vocabularies  of  irregular  words,  but  merely  to  furnish  ma- 
terial for  exercises  on  the  more  familiar  words. 


Genders  and  Gender  Equivalents. 

T 

MASC. 

FEM. 

MASC. 

FBM. 

bachelor 

maid 

gentleman 

lady 

spinster 

hart 

roe 

beau 

belle 

he 

she 

boar 

sow- 

horse 

mare 

boy 

girl 

husband 

wife 

bridegroom 

bride 

king 

queen 

brother 

sister 

lad 

lass 

buck 

doe 

lord 

lady 

ewe 

male 

female 

bull 

cow 

man 

woman 

bullock 

heifer 

master 

mistress 

colt 

filly 

miss 

drake 

duck 

Mr. 

Mrs. 

earl 

countess 

mister 

mistress 

father 

mother 

monk 

nun 

friar 

nun 

monsieur 

madame 

gander 

goose 

mademoiselle 

122  HELPS. 

Irregular  words :  Genders. 


MASC. 

FEM. 

MASC. 

FEM. 

nephew 

niece 

stag 

hind 

ox 

cow 

steer 

heifer 

papa 

mamma 

swain 

nymph 

ram 

ewe 

uncle      * 

aunt 

rooster 

hen 

wizard 

witch 

sir 

madam 

youth 

maiden 

sire  {horse) 

dam 

damsel 

son 

daughter 

II. 

abbott 

abbess 

Infant 

Infanta 

administrator 

administratrix  Jesse 

Jessie 

anchorite 

anchoress 

John 

Johanna 

Augustus 

Augusta 

Joseph 

Josephine 

Cornelius 

Cornelia 

Julius 

Julia 

czar 

czarina 

Juliet 

don 

donna 

landgrave 

landgravine 

duke 

duchess 

marquis 

marchioness 

emperor 

empress 

negro 

negress 

executor 

executrix 

Paul 

Pauline 

Francis 

Frances 

signor 

signora 

Frank 

Frances 

sultan 

sultana 

goodman 

goody 

testator 

testatrix 

Henry 

Henrietta 

votary 

votaress 

hero 

heroine 

widower 

widow. 

III. 


archduke 

he-bear 

cock-sparrow 

he-goat 

grandfather 

landlord 


archduchess 

she-bear 

hen-sparrow 

she-goat 

grandmother 

landlady 


milkman 

peacock 

buck-rabbit 

stepson 

stepfather 


milkmaid 

peahen 

doe-rabbit 

stepdaughter 

stepmother 


HELPS.  1 23 

Irregular  words:  Plurals. 


IRREGULAR    PLURALS 

• 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

beef 

beeves 

mouse 

mice 

brother 

brothers 

ox 

oxen 

brethren 

pea 

peas 

calf 

calves 

pease 

child 

children 

penny 

pennies 

cow 

cows 

pence 

kine 

self 

selves 

die 

dies 

she 

they 

dice 

sheaf 

sheaves 

elf 

elves 

shelf 

shelves 

foot 

feet 

sow 

sows 

genius 

geniuses 

swine 

genii 

staff 

staffs 

goose 

geese 

staves 

half 

halves 

that 

those 

he 

they 

thief 

thieves 

I 

we 

this 

these 

index 

indexes 

thou 

ye 

indices 

you 

it 

they 

tooth 

teeth 

knife 

knives 

wharf 

wharfs 

leaf 

leaves 

wharves 

life 

lives 

wife 

wives 

loaf 

loaves 

wolf 

wolves 

louse 

lice 

woman 

women 

man 

men 

II. 

FOREIGN    WORDS. 
Words  marked  R.  form  also  the  regular  English  plural, 
analysis  analyses  axis  axes 

alumna  alumnae  bandit,  R.  banditti 

alumnus  alumni  basis  bases 


124  HELPS. 

Irregular  words :  Adjectives. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

beau,  R. 

beaux 

monsieur 

messieurs 

crisis 

crises 

Mr. 

Messrs. 

criterion,  R. 

criteria 

nebula 

nebulae 

calyx,  R. 

calyces. 

nucleus,  R. 

nuclei 

cherub,  R. 

cherubim 

oasis 

oases 

datum 

data 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

dilettante 

dilettanti 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

erratum 

errata 

radius,  R. 

radii 

ellipsis 

ellipses 

rostrum,  R. 

rostra 

focus,  R. 

foci 

seraph,  R. 

seraphim 

formula,  R. 

formulae 

spectrum,  R. 

spectra 

fungus,  R. 

fun^i 

stamen,  R. 

stamina 

fulcrum,  R. 

fulcra 

stimulus 

stimuli 

genus 

genera 

stratum,  R. 

strata 

hypothesis 

hypotheses 

synopsis 

synopses 

lamina 

laminae 

synthesis 

syntheses 

larva 

larvae 

terminus 

termini 

medium,  R. 

media 

thesis 

theses 

memorandum, R.  memoranda 

tumulus 

tumuli 

metamorphosis  metamorphoses  vertebra 

vertebrae 

minutia 

minutiae 

vertex,  R. 

vertices 

madam 

mesdames 

IRREGULAR  ADJECTIVES. 

POSITIVE. 

COM  PAR. 

SUPERL. 

bad 

worse 

worst 

evil 

worse 

worst 

far 

farther 

farthest 

fore 

former 

foremost 

good 

better 

best 

hind 

hinder 

hindmost 

ill 

worse 

worst 

(in) 

inner 

innermost 
inmost 

posmva. 
little 

late 


many 
much 


(out) 


old 

(up) 
well 


HELPS.  125 

Irregular  words :  Adverbs, 


COMPAR. 

SUPERL. 

less 

least 

lesser 

later 

latest 

latter 

last 

more 

most 

more 

most 

nearer 

nearest 

next 

outer 

outmost 

(utter) 

utmost 

uttermost 

older 

oldest 

elder 

eldest 

(upper) 

uppermost 

better 

best 

IRREGULAR    ADVERBS. 


badly 

worse 

worst 

early 

earlier 

earliest 

far 

farther 

farthest 

forth 

further 

furthest 

little 

less 

least 

near 

nearer 

nearest 
next 

much 

more 

most 

well 

better 

best 

oft,  often 

oftener 

oftenest 

126 


HELPS. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


It  will  be  observed  that  in  many  cases  either  the  past  tense, 
or  the  perfect  participle,  or  both  have  the  regular  form.  The 
italicized  forms  are  either  obsolete  or  not  so  often  used  as  the 
accompanying  forms. 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 

abide 

abode 

abode 

arise 

arose 

arisen 

awake 

awoke,  awaked 

awaked 

be  or  am 

was 

been 

bear  {bring  forth) 

bore,  bare 

born 

bear  {carry) 

bore,  bare 

borne 

beat 

beat 

beaten,  beat 

begin 

began 

begun 

behold 

beheld 

beheld 

belay 

belaid,  belayed 

belaid,  belayed 

bend 

bent,  bended 

bent,  bended 

bet 

bet,  betted 

bet,  betted 

bereave 

bereft 

bereft,  bereaved 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

bid 

bid,  bade 

bidden,  bid 

bind 

bound 

bound 

bite 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

blend 

blended,  blent 

blended,  blent 

bless 

blessed,  blest 

blessed,  blest 

blow 

blew 

blown 

break 

broke,  brake 

broken,  broke 

breed 

bred 

bred 

bring 

brought 

brought 

build 

built,  builded 

built,  builded 

burn 

burned,  burnt 

burned,  burnt 

HELPS. 

127 

PAST. 

Irregular  Verbs. 

PRESENT. 

PERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 

burst 

burst 

burst 

buy 

bought 

bought 

cast 

cast 

cast 

catch 

caught 

caught 

chide 

chid,  chode 

chidden,  chid 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

cleave  {adhere) 

cleaved,  clave 

cleaved 

cleave  [split) 

clove,  cleft,  clave 

cleft,  cloven 

climb 

climbed,  clomb 

climbed 

cling 

clung 

clung 

clothe 

clothed,  clad 

clothed,  clad 

come 

came 

come 

cost 

cost 

cost 

creep 

crept 

crept 

crow 

crowed,  crew 

crowed 

cut 

cut 

cut 

dare  {venture) 

dared,  durst 

dared 

deal 

dealt,  dealed 

dealt,  dealed 

dig 

dug,  digged 

dug,  digged 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

dream 

dreamed,  dreamt 

dreamed,  dreamt 

dress 

dressed,  drest 

dressed,  drest 

drink 

drank,  drunk 

drunk,  drunken 

drive 

drove 

driven 

dwell 

dwelt,  dwelled 

dwelt,  dwelled 

eat 

ate,  eat 

eaten,  eat 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

feed 

fed 

fed 

feel 

felt      • 

felt 

fight 

fought 

fought 

find 

found 

found 

flee 

fled 

fled 

fling 

flung 

flung 

fly 

flew 

flown 

128 

HELPS. 

Irregular  Verbs. 

PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 

forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

got 

got,  gotten 

gild 

gilt,  gilded 

gilt,  gilded 

gird 

girt,  girded 

girt,  girded 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

grave 

graved 

graven,  graved 

grind 

ground 

ground 

grow 

grew 

grown 

hang  (suspend) 

hung 

hung 

have 

had 

had 

hear 

heard 

heard 

heave 

heaved,  hove 

heaved,  hoven 

hew 

hewed 

hewn,  hewed 

hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

hit 

hit 

hit 

hold 

held 

held,  holden 

hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

keep 

kept 

kept 

kneel 

knelt,  kneeled 

knelt,  kneeled 

knit 

knit,  knitted 

knit,  knitted 

know 

knew 

known 

lade 

laded 

laded, laden 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

leap 

leaped,  leapt 

leaped,  leapt 

learn 

learned,  learnt 

learned,  learnt 

leave 

left 

left 

lend 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

let 

lie  (recline) 

lay 

lain 

light 

lighted,  lit 

lighted,  lit 

H 

ELPS. 

129 

PAST. 

Irregular  Verbs. 

PRESENT. 

PERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 

lose 

lost 

lost 

make 

made 

made 

mean 

meant 

meant 

meet 

met 

met 

mow 

mowed 

mowed,  mown 

pass 

passed,  past 

passed,  past 

pay 

paid 

paid 

pen  {enclose) 

penned,  pent 

penned,  pent 

prove 

proved 

proved,  proven 

put 

put 

put 

quit 

quit,  qui 

tted 

quitted,  quit 

rap 

rapped, 

rapt 

rapped,  rapt 

read 

read 

read 

rend 

rent 

rent 

rid 

rid 

rid 

ride 

rode,  rid 

ridden,  rid 

ring 

rang,  rung 

rung 

rise 

rose 

risen 

rive 

rived 

riven,  rived 

run 

ran,  run 

run 

saw 

sawed 

sawed,  sawn 

say 

said 

said 

see 

saw 

seen 

seek 

sought 

sought 

seethe 

seethed, 

sod 

sodden,  seethed 

sell 

sold 

sold 

send 

sent 

sent 

set 

set 

set 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shape 

shaped 

shaped,  shapen 

shave 

shaved 

shaven,  shaved 

shear 

sheared, 

shore 

shorn,  sheared 

shed 

shed 

shed 

shine 

shone 

shone 

6* 


130 

HELPS. 

Irregular  Verbs. 

PAST. 

PRESENT. 

PERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

shoot 

shot 

shot 

show 

showed 

shown,  showed 

shred 

shred 

shred 

shrink 

shrank,  shrunk 

shrunk,  shrunken 

shut 

shut 

shut 

sing 

sang,  sung 

sung 

sink 

sank,  sunk 

sunk 

sit 

sat 

sat 

slay 

slew 

slain 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

slide 

slid 

slidden,  slid 

sling 

slung,  slang 

slung 

slink 

slunk,  slank 

slunk 

slit 

slit,  slitted 

slit,  slitted 

smell 

smelled,  smelt 

smelled,  smelt 

smite 

smote 

smitten,  smit 

sow 

sowed 

sown,  sowed 

speak 

spoke,  spake 

spoken 

speed 

sped,  speeded 

sped,  speeded 

spell 

spelled,  spelt 

spelt,  spelled 

spend 

spent 

spent 

spill 

spilled,  spilt 

spilled,  spilt 

spin 

spun,  span 

spun 

spit 

spit,  spat 

spit 

split 

split 

split,  splitted 

spoil 

spoiled,  spoilt 

spoiled,  spoilt 

spread 

spread 

spread 

spring 

sprang,  sprung 

sprung 

stand 

stood 

stood 

stave 

staved,  stove 

staved,  stove 

stay 

staid,  stayed 

staid,  stayed 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

stick 

stuck 

stuck 

sting 

stung 

stung 

HELPS. 

131 

PAST. 

Irregular  Verbs, 

PRESENT. 

PERFECT    PARTICIPLE, 

stride 

strode,  strid 

stridden 

strike 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

string 

strung 

strung 

strive 

strove 

striven 

strow,  strew 

strowed,  strewed 

strown,  strewn 

swear 

swore,  szvare 

sworn 

sweat 

sweat,  sweated 

sweat,  sweated 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

swell 

swelled 

swollen,  swelled 

swim 

swam,  szvum 

.  swum 

swing 

swung 

swung 

take 

took 

taken 

teach 

taught 

taught 

tear 

tore,  tare 

torn 

tell 

told 

told 

think 

thought 

thought 

thrive 

thrived,  throve 

thrived,  thriven 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

tread 

trod 

trodden,  trod 

wake 

waked,  woke 

waked,  woke 

wax 

waxed 

waxed,  waxen 

wear 

wore 

worn 

weave 

wove 

woven 

wed 

wedded,  wed 

wedded,  wed 

weep 

wept 

wept 

wet 

wet,  wetted 

wet,  wetted 

whet 

whet,  whetted 

whet,  whetted 

win 

won 

won 

wind 

wound,  winded 

wound 

work 

worked,  wrought 

worked,  wrought 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

write 

wrote,  writ 

written 

INDEX, 


The  references  are  to  pages* 

Abbreviate,  108  (V). 

abbreviated  form   of   recitation  :    adjective,   in  ;     noun,    108  ; 

subject,  81. 
abstract  names,  number,  38. 
action  :  object  of,  22  (c) ;  subject  of,  22  (c). 
adjective  :  def.,  20  ;  clause,  34. 
adjectival  nature  of  participle,  27  (a), 
adjectives  : 

abbreviated  recitation,  in. 

cases  (?),  56  ;  comparison,  57-8  ;  compound,  56. 

exercises,  89-90. 

genders  (?),  56. 

interrogative,  56  ;  irregular,  124-5, 

numbers,  56-7  ;  numeral,  56. 

parsing:  abbrev.,  in  ;  example  of,  no;  order,  no. 

persons  (?),  56  ;  pronominal,  56. 

recitation,  no  ;  remarks,  89. 
adverb  :  def.,  23  ;  clause,  34;  remark  on  def.,  91. 
abverbs:  comparison,  66;  compound,  66;  conjunct.,  see  letter  c, 

exercises,  91. 

parsing,  order,  112. 

"rule,"  66  (remark),  113-14;  relative,  66. 
agreement  :  mean'g,  55  ;  verb  and  subject,  61-3,  63  (b). 
analysis  :  meaning,  99  ;  order  of,  99-100. 
antecedent  :  mean'g,  55;  agree't,  55. 
apposition  :  mean'g,  47  ;  nouns,  47 ;  pronouns,  54. 
attribute,  def.,  16. 

bare,  complete,  16 ;  exercises,  82 ;  recitation,  83  (a), 
attributive  object,  33  (d). 

[133} 


134  INDEX. 

Bare:   subject,  predicate,  &c,  15  ;  attribute,  16;  copula,  16, 

Cases:  def.,  43  ;  as  opposed  to  other  forms,  105-6  ;  as  opposed 
to  relations,  46. 
nominative :  nouns,  43  ;  pronouns,  51. 
nouns,  42-48  ;  pronouns,  51-3. 
objective,  of  pronouns,  51. 

possessive  :  nouns,  43  ;  pronouns,  51 ;  formation,  43-4. 
rules,  see  letter  r. 
class  membership:  how  determined,  18  (remark);  23-4;  27(par.ig); 

91  (c). 
classes  of  words:  defined,   18-28 ;   in  forming  compounds,  28 ; 

separately  studied  (chapter),  36-70 ;  remarks,  105. 
classification  of  words,  basis :  27  (par.  19),  18  (remark),  24  (d), 

qi  (par.  14  c). 
clauses  :  mean'g,  30(d);  adject.,  34;  adverb,  34;  noun,  substan- 
tive, 33  (a) ;  exercises,  102-3,  103-5« 
combined  :  words,  11  (b);  subj.  and  pred.  in  prop.,  17. 
collectives,  37  ;  number  of,  38. 
compare,  to,  58  ;  comparative  form,  57. 
comparison  :  adjectives,  57-8,  124-5  ;  adverbs,  66,  125. 
complement,  78  (3,  c). 

complete:  subject,  predicate,  15  ;  attribute,  copula,  16. 
complex  proposition:  mean'g,  30  (c)  ;  analysis,  99  (par.  5);  exer- 
cises, 102-3;  recitation,  100. 
compound  :  adjectives,  56 ;  adverbs,  66 ;  verbs,  59. 
propositions  :  mean'g,  30  ;  exercises,  101-2,  103. 
words,  28. 
condition:  in  def.  of  attribute,  15;  indicated  by  attribute,  16(b),  82. 
conjunction,  def.,  26. 

conjunctions  :  disting.    from   prepositions,    26  (d),   92  (d) ;    co- 
ordinating, 67;  exercises,  92,  101-2,  103;  remarks,  92;  subor- 
dinating, 67. 
conjunctive:    adverbs,    26(c),   66;    disting.    from   conjunctions, 

.   92  (d)  ;  exercises,  93, 102-3;  pronouns,  49. 
connectives:    copulas,   16;    conjunctions,    26;    conjunctive    ad- 
verbs, 26  (c)  ;  conjunct,  pronouns,  49 ;  conjunctions,  26 ;  prep- 
ositions, 25  ;  phrases,  16  (c),  35. 
construct,  to,  def.,  45. 
construction,  see  rules,  letter  r. 
co-ordinating  conjunctions,  67. 

copula :  def.,  16  ;  in  def.  of  preposition,  25  ;  in  def.  of  verb,  21; 
phrase,  16  (c) ;  exercises,  82;  recitation,  83  (b). 


INDEX.  I35. 

Declarative  proposition  (clause),  29. 

deer5  not  a  number,  38. 

degrees,  disting.  from  forms,  no. 

dependent  proposition  (clause),  29  (a). 

derived,  in  definition  of  participle,  infinitive,  27. 

direct  object,  32  (a) ;  exercises,  100. 

Ellipsis,  34. 

else^  exception  to  definition  of  adjective,  20(d). 

English  grammar,  def.,  13. 

equivalents  :  gender,  42;  phrases  of  comparison,  58(a,b);  66(a). 

etymology,  77. 

expletive,  32  (e)  ;  there,  32  (e). 

Feminine  gender  :   def.,  41  ;  formation  of  (nouns),  41  (par.  49). 

first  person  :  pronouns,  50;  verbs,  59. 

foreign  nouns  :  plurals  of,  40  (par.  47);  list,  123. 

formation  of  genders,  numbers,  tenses,  &c,  see  letters  g,  n,  t,  &c. 

forms  :  in  definition  of   grammar,   12-13  I  disting.  from  degrees, 

no;  from  relations \  46;  of  nouns,  pronouns,  &c,  see  letters 

n,  p,  &c. 
future-tense  phrase,  63. 
future-perfect-tense  phrase,  65. 

Genders  :  def.,  41 ;  of  nouns,  41-2  ;  of  pronouns,  51  ;  equiva- 
lents, 42 ;  feminine,  def.,  41  ;  formation  of  feminine,  41  (par. 
49) ;  irregular  genders  and  equivalents,  121-2 ;  neuter  of 
nouns,  42  ;  neuter  of  pronouns,  51. 

grammar:  def.,  11-13  ;  English  grammar,  def.,  13;  object  of 
studying,  77  (g);  remarks  on  definit.,  77-8. 

grammatically  independent,  48  (a)  ;  rule  for  nouns,  48. 

Helps,  70  + . 

hints,  to  teachers  (unclassified):  abbreviating  recitations,  108  (IV), 
in   (1") ;   applying  definitions  and    principles,   73-7,  80  (I), 
86  (II),  88  (a),  98  (remark);  assigning  lesson,  74  (IV). 
book  as  guide,  73  (I). 

cases  :  definition,  disting.  from  other  forms,  105-6. 
complement,  78. 
course  of  study,  77  (remark), 
conjunctions,  conjunctive  adverbs,  92. 


136 


INDEX. 


hints — continued. 

definition:  of  adjective,  89  (1) ;  of  adverb,  91;  of  attribute,  8a; 

of  cases,  105-6  ;  of  conjunction,  92  ;  of  grammar,  77-8  ;  of 

subject,  78  ;  of  the  several  classes,  95  (I), 
distinctions:     degrees-forms,    no;     definition-description,     91; 

words-objects,  78  ;  may  be  used — is  used,  86  (top  of  p.). 
division  of  words  into  classes,  85  (I), 
formation  of  plurals,  105. 
habit  of  speaking  correctly:  the  teacher's  part  in  inculcating, 

95-8 ;  in  preface, 
infinitive,  95-8. 
learning  by  rote,  75. 
limiting  words,  88,  89  (^),  91,  95  (^). 

new  examples  for  recitations,  75  ;  object  of  examples,  80  (T). 
nouns,  85-5, 105-8. 
parsing,  106,  107  (III),  108  (V). 

paruciples,  93  ;  prepositions,  92  ;  pronouns  (properties),  108. 
plan  of  subjects  studied,  76. 
preparation  for  class,  74  (IV). 
progress,  76,  86  (IV),  87  (I), 
reasons  for  conclusions,  75  ;  omitted,  108. 
recitations  and  study,  74-6 ;  on  definitions,  85  (a), 
relations,  jj\  as  basis  cf  classification,  91. 
reviewing,  75-6. 

'*  rules"  for  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  113-14. 
selections  from  authors  for  recitations,  75. 
study  of  nouns,  85-5  ;  of  pronouns,  86-7. 
teacher  a  guide,  73  (I), 
test  of  knowledge  of  principles,  &c,  75. 
using  the  book,  10,  72;  illustrations,  73  (II),  79. 
verb  phrases,  112  (f ),  117-20. 
who  should  study  grammar  (?),  76. 

Ideas,  words  express,  11  (a). 

imperative  propositions,  29. 

independent:  grammatically,  48  (a);  proposition,  30  (b,  i)„ 

indirect  object,  32  (a);  examples,  100. 

infinitive,  def.,  27. 

infinitives:  disting.  from  participles,  95  (^f#f);  from  nouns,  96 
(^  II)  ;  direct,  and  indirect  object  of,  32  (b),  100  ;  exercises,  96, 
97  ;  in  -lug,  70 ;  as  object  of  verb,  96  ;  parsing,  order,  ex- 
ample of,  n6  ;  recitation  on  definition,  98  ;  root,  70  ;  as  subject 
of  proposition,  32  (c). 

-ing*:  infinitive  in,  70;  participle  in,  68  (b). 

interjection,  meaning,  28. 


INDEX.  137 

interrogative:  adjectives,  49,  56;  pronouns,  49;  propositions,  29. 

intransitive  verbs,  23  (f). 

irregular:  adjectives,  124-5;  adverbs,  125;  genders,  121-2;  past 
tenses,  60,  126-31 ;  perf.  participles,  69,  126-31  ;  plurals,  38, 
39-40,  (lists)  123-4,  (foreign)  123  ;  verbs,  60,  (lists)  126-31 ;  words, 
remark,  105,  (lists)  121-31. 

it*  impersonal,  32  (d). 

Language  lessons,  preface;  74  (^f  III). 
language,  study  of,  77. 

less,  least,  58. 

limit  or  restrict,  to:  def.,  20;  exercises  on  limiting  words,  reci- 
%  tation,  remarks,  88,  89 ;  in  def.  of  adjective,  2  o  (c,  d) ;  phrases 

20(f). 
lists,  of  irregular  words,  121-31  (see  under  irregular). 

Masculine  gender,  def . ,  41;  of  nouns,  41;  of  pronouns,  51. 
may  be  used,  disting.  from  is  used,  19  (e),  20  (e),  23  (c),  86,  89 

(U  9*  (c,  1). 
moods  (?),  65. 
more,    most,    in    adjective    phrases,    58    (a,    b) ;    in    adverb 

phrases,  66. 

Name:  in  def.  of  noun,  19;  noun  as  name  of  itself,  19  (e);  noun 

as  name  of  abstract  objects,  38  (par.  40). 
neuter  gender:  nouns  (?),  42  ;  pronouns,  51. 
nominative  case:  nouns: — 43(c);  of  subject,  attribute,  object,  45; 
object  of  preposition,  participle,  infinitive,  46  (a) ;  in  indepen- 
dent relation,  48  ;  pronouns: — 51  (a)  ;  as  subj.,  attrib.,  object, 
52-3- 
noun:  def.,  19;  in  def.  of  adjective,  20;  of  adverb,  23;  of  infini- 
tive, 27  ;  clause,  33  (a)  ;  as  name,  19  (d) ;  as  name  of  itself, 
19  (e),  40  (par.  46)  ;  as  name  of  abstract  object,  38  (par.  40). 
nouns:  chapter,  36-48;  cases,  genders,  numbers,  rules,  see  let- 
ters c,  g,  n,  r. 
appositive,  47  ;  attribute,  45,  82. 
common,  proper,  compound,  collective,  36-7. 
obj.  of  infinitive,  preposition,  participle,  verb,  45-0. 
possessive  of,  43-4,  47. 

parsing:  order,  example  of,  107  ;  abbreviated,  108  ;  remarks,  108: 
recitation  on  the  definition,  85  ;  remarks,  85,  86 
as  substantive,  33  (a). 


I38  INDEX. 

numbers:  def.,  37;  adj.,   57(c);    nouns,    37-40;  pronouns,    50; 
verbs,  59. 
singular,  plural  (meaning),  37  (c). 

plurals :  formation  of,  38-40  ;  irregular  (meaning),  38  (a) ;  forma- 
tion of,  39-40;  lists  of  irregular,  123-4  ;  spoken,  written,  38-9. 
numeral  adjectives,  56. 

Object:  of  action,  22  (c)  ;  attributive,  33  ^d)  ;  direct  and  in- 
direct, 32  (a) — examples,  100  ;  of  infinitive,  46  (a),  96;  of  partici- 
ple, 46  (a)  ;  of  preposition,  25,  46  (a);  of  a  verb,  22  (c,  d,  e,  f)— 
not  an  adverb,  23  (a,  b). 

objective  case,  51. 

orthography,  77. 

orthoepy,  77. 

Parse,  to,  meaning,  106. 
parsing,  order,  example  of : 

abbreviated,  108, 109  ;  adjectives,  no — abbrev.  form,  in  ;  adverbs 
(order  only),  112. 

conjunctions  (order,  not  example  of),  113. 

infinitives,  116. 

nouns,  107;  abbrev.,  108. 

participles,  114  ;  prepositions  (order  only),  113  ;  pronouns,  109. 

verbs,  m-112. 
participle,  def.,  27  ;  recitation  on  def.,  94. 

participles:  direct,  and  indirect  object,  32  (b) ;  disting.  from  ad- 
jectives, 93,  95  (1") ;  from  infinitives,  95  (T  1). 

exercises,  94. 

forms,  68  ;  formation  of  perf.  part.,  69. 

imperfect,  68  (a,  b). 

in  phrases,  117-20. 

parsing,  order,  example  of,  1 14-15. 
parts,  principal,  of  verbs,  69  (a), 
past-perfect-tense  phrase,  64. 

past  tense  :  meaning,  60 ;  format,  of,  60-1 ;  irregular,  60,  (lists) 
126-31. 

perfect  participle,  68  ;  formation  of,  69. 

personal  pronouns,  49. 

persons:  def.,  50;  of  pronouns,  50;  of  verbs,  59  (a,  b). 

phrase,  def.,  34-5. 

phrases:  exercises,  101-3,  103-5  ;  fut. -perf. -tense  phr.,  65;  fut.- 
tense  phr.,  63  ;  present-perfect-tense  phr.,  64;  past-perf. -tense 
phr.,  64 ;  of  comparison,  58  ;  verb  phrases,  discussed,  117-20. 


INDEX.  139 

plan,  7-8. 

pluperfect-tense  phrase,  64. 

plural  number,  see  (index)  under  numbers. 

plurals,  irregular,  lists,  1 23-4. 

positive  form,  57. 

possessive  case,  def.,  43  ;  see  also  (index)  under  cases. 

possessive  nouns  in  apposition,  47  (c,  2d). 

predicate:  def.,  15  ;  bare,  and  complete,  15  (c) ;  exercises,  81  ; 

in  def.  of  verb,  21 ;  with  two  or  more  subjects,  31  (b). 
preposition:  def.,  25  ;  object  of,  25  (c);  remarks  on  definit.,  92. 
prepositions:  compared  with  conjunctions,  26(d);  parsing,  order, 

113;  "rule,"  113-14. 
present  participle,  68  (a,  b). 
present-perfect-tense  phrase,  64. 

principal:  parts  of  verbs,  69  (a)  ;  propositions,  29  (a). 
pronominal  adjectives,  56. 
pronoun,  def.,  19. 
pronouns  :  cases,  genders,  numbers,  persons,  50-I. 

conjunctive,  interrog.,  relative,  personal,  49. 

impersonal,  32  (d). 

parsing,  order,  example  of,  109. 

properties  (remarks),  108. 

rules,  see  (index)  under  rules, 
proper  nouns,  37. 
proposition:  def.,  17;    chapter  on  definition,  14-17;  compared 

with  sentence,  31  (e) ;  exercises  on  the  def.,  83-4. 
propositions  :  analysis  of,  order,  99  ;  chapter  on  kinds,  29-35 ; 
connected  by  conjunctions,  26  (a,  b,  c,  d),  67. 

clauses,  see  (index)  clauses. 

compound,  complex,  simple,  30. 

declarative,  imperative,  interrogative,  principal,  subordinate,  29. 

dependent,  independent,  29,  30. 

exercises,  101-2-3-4-5  ;  recitation  on  disting'g,  propositions,  too. 

uses,  as  clauses,  33-4. 

Quality:  in  def.  of  attribute,  16;  degrees  of  (comparison),  56. 

Recitations  :  attribute,  83  (a);  copula,  83  (b);  subject,  80-1. 
analysis:  of  proposition,  100;  verb  phrases,  117. 
definition:  of  noun,  85;  pronoun,  86;  limit,  to,  88  ;  participle,  94; 
infinitive,  98. 


I4O  INDEX. 

recitations — continued. 

in  parsing:  nouns,  107—  abbrev.,  108  ;  pronouns,  109 \  adjectives, 
no — abbrev. ,iu;verbs,ii2;  participles,  115;  infinitives,n6. 
regular:  plurals,  38  ;  perf.  participles,  69 ;  verbs,  60. 
related  words,  II  (a,  c). 
relation  :  of  words,  def.,  12  (e);  II— 12;  state  of,  11  (d);  disting. 

from  cas?,  46 ;  words  in  different  relations,  12  (a,  b). 
relations,  as  basis  of  classification,  27  (par.  19),  91  (c),  92  (^[),  93, 
95(18  a,  I). 
independent  of  grammatical  relations,  28. 
relative  pronouns,  49. 
restrict,  see  (index)  under  limit, 
rhetoric,  77. 
root  infinitive,  70. 
rule,  meaning,  113,  114  (%) 

rules  :  adverbs,  conjunctions,  prepositions,  (?),  1 13-14. 
construction  :  nouns  : 

subject,  attribute,  object  of  verb,  45. 
object  of  preposition,  part.,  infin.,  46  (a). 
possessive,  apposition,  47. 
four  rules,  48.  % 

grammatically  independent,  48. 
construction :  pronouns  : 

subj  ,  attrib.,  obj.  of  verb,  prep.,  part.,  inf.,  53. 
possessive,  apposition,  54. 
agreement  with  antecedent,  55. 
construction  :  verbs  :  agree't  with  subj.,  61  (b,  2d) ;  in  3d 
person,  singular,  63  (b). 

Sentence,  mean,  of,  31  (e). 

Sheep*  not  a  number,  38, 

sign  of  infinitive,  to,  96  (III). 

simple  proposition,  30  (a). 

singular  number,  see  (index)  under  numbers. 

spelling,  not  basis  of  classification,  18  (remark),  24  (d). 

subject :  def.,  14;  agreement,  61  (b,2d),63  (b);  bare,  complete,  15; 

of  action,  22  (c);  composed  of  several  words,  14(b),  31  (b); 

disting.  from  logical  subject,  78  (3,  a) ;  exercises,  recitation, 

79-80;  impersonal,  32  (d)  ;  as  noun,  18  (b)  ;  as  infinitive,  95  (a); 

used  to  designate  bare  subject,  15  (e). 
subjective  relation,  46  (remark), 
subordinate:  proposition,  29  (a) ;  conjunctions,  67. 


INDEX.  141 

substance,  disting.  from  word,  14  (a). 

substantive:  clauses,  33  (a)  ;  nature  of  infinitive,  27  (a,  2d). 

suggestions,  to  the  teacher,  73-6. 

superlative  form,  57. 

Teacher  to:   hints,    see  (index)  under  hints;  general  suggestions, 

73-6. 
tense:  present,  past,  60;  phrases,  see  (index)  under  phrases, 
tenses:  meaning,  60  (a);  of  verbs,  60  (b). 
there,  expletive,  32  (e). 
to?  sign  of  infinitive,  96  (III). 
u  to  De,"  forms,  62, 
transitive  verbs,  23  (f). 

Understood,  meaning  of,  17. 

Verb:  def.,  21;  direct  and  indirect  object  of,  32,  b;  not  group  of 
words,  21  (remark) ;  remark  on  definition,  90. 

verbs:  exercises  (remark),  90  (^[);  irregular,  meaning,  60  (90  a), 
lists,  126-31  ;  number,  persons,  59  ;  phrases,  see  (index)  under 
phrases  ;  parsing,  order,  example,  m-12  ;  tenses,  60-3  ;  ruler 
agree' t,  see  (index)  under  rules. 

verbal  nature  of  participles,  infinitives,  27. 

Words:  disting.  from  substance,  14  (a);  from  group  of  words, 
21  (remark) ;  as  name  of  itself,  19  (e),  40  (par.  46). 

words:  basis  of  classification,  27  (par.  19);  classes  of  def.,  18-28; 
combined,  n  (b)  ;  compound,  28  ;  different  forms,  12,-  in  differ- 
ent relations,  12  ;  on  the  parsing  of,  106 ,  related,  11  (b) ;  spell- 
ing not  basis  of  classification,  18  (remark). 


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